Abstract

Particularly in academic libraries in Africa the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) are possibly the two most significant issues that need to be addressed by librarians in order to offer staff and students at their universities the support they need to flourish in the twenty-first century. This chapter critically examines some of the current literature exploring how academic libraries address the challenges and opportunities presented by these two factors. Five key areas are identified as being of particular importance in the current literature: the literacy rates and the academic reading ability of university students; accessibility of information to university students, researchers and communities in Africa; the impact, importance and limitations of open access information; the role of digital media to market libraries and the importance of teaching digital literacy in libraries; and lessons learnt from online teaching and learning during Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) which can help to enhance learning amongst students in the post-COVID-19 world. Overall, the chapter explores each of these five areas, showing how the 4IR tools, especially artificial intelligence (AI) and makerspaces can be used to address many of the concerns raised in the literature. It also shows how each of these five areas are avenues through which libraries are and can address SDGs in various ways. The chapter argues that libraries need to address the challenges they face without waiting for more government funding, but rather more innovatively use the funding they have. While admirable research has been conducted on the library needs of students at universities, much more work needs to be performed to understand the needs of researchers and how to support them.

Introduction

In the second decade of the twenty-first century the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer both challenges and opportunities for societies in Africa. Several countries in Africa are trying to embrace the technological advancements of the 4IR, often by leapfrogging advancement aspects of the Second or Third Industrial Revolutions. For example, most people in Africa currently have a mobile phone, although few landline phones were ever installed in homes in rural areas in Africa. The goals set by the UN SDGs offer enormous opportunities for countries in Africa, but with limited funding; many of these are difficult to implement, let alone achieve. For example, the eradication of poverty in Africa is almost impossible without external funding and a change in the political will of many African governments and global neo-capital economic structures. Within this context, the 4IR and SDGs present interesting challenges and opportunities to libraries at universities and in communities in Africa. This chapter examines some of the key challenges faced by academic libraries at the beginning of the third decade of the twenty-first century. It offers an overview of the ways in which libraries in Africa have been addressing these challenges, as is discussed in detail in the chapters that follow in this book. The chapter is not an introduction to the chapters that follow in the book, but rather offers a critical reading of the scholarship on African academic libraries. It points to proposed ways in which the 4IR technologies, particularly artificial intelligence (AI) tools, can help libraries embrace contemporary technological opportunities in a way that may help them address SDGs generally and the SDG for access to information in particular.

This chapter examines five key issues faced by academic libraries in Africa as they aim to empower university staff, students and the communities connected to these universities. The first area is the literacy rate of students in Africa and students’ ability to read complex academic articles and acquire new knowledge from these articles. Second are the SDGs and access to information as an important way libraries can help by providing the information people need to make more sustainable developmental decisions and choices. Third is open access to information and open scholarship and the positive and negative impact of these on scholarship in Africa. Fourth is the importance of digital media as both the way in which libraries can push information to clients and make catalogues and databases more easily accessible to clients. Fifth is the changing landscape of teaching and learning brought about by COVID-19 and affecting the post-COVID-19 world. In each of these five sections, addressing SDGs and exploring the role of the 4IR technologies, especially AI tools, is examined and key innovations are recommended for libraries in Africa, such that they could work with 4IR tools to positively impact societal change.

Literacy and Academic Reading

Literacy levels in Africa vary between countries, but on average are lower than those in the Global North. In South Africa, the poor reading abilities of learners has significantly hindered students’ academic performance at university and more interventions are needed to support underprepared students (Pretorius, 2002; Bharuthram & Clarence, 2015; Millin, 2015). In Francophone Africa, child labour hampers the development of a reading culture and continues to lower students’ reading abilities and academic success (Lee, Kim & Rhee, 2021).

Nkomo and Ngoepe’s (2023) research on literacy in Zimbabwe points to the urgent need to develop a reading culture amongst high school learners. Their research found that due to social media, learners have become used to reading short bits of information and have little desire to read longer texts. They found that learners spent five hours a day on social media, leaving them little time for reading. The authors showed that there is a positive side to Web 2.0 platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook, because through these, learners have downloaded novels and newspaper articles. If these platforms are embraced early on in schools, they could be used to develop a positive reading culture amongst learners helping to improve literacy rates. Gbenu, Njagi and Adegoroye’s (2023) research on the role of public libraries points to the important role they can play in developing literacy and a reading culture by providing freely accessible, reliable information to citizens and offering literacy training and reading campaigns to strengthen cultures of reading. In South African academic libraries, Munzhedzi and Mukhwantheli (2023) show how many university students do not know what a library is, how to use it or how librarians can assist them. This is due to the lack of attention given to developing a reading culture amongst school children and the lack of libraries in public schools. They argued that libraries need to foster a culture of learning and reading amongst the current generation of students.

These varied solutions to the problem of student literacy in Africa will only be possible if governments make funds available for libraries to offer the most relevant information on various platforms to people, thus ensuring that everyone has access to the information they need to solve the challenges they face, develop their overall knowledge and help spark creativity and curiosity (Munzhedzi & Mukhwantheli, 2023, Nkomo & Ngoepe, 2023, Gbenu, Njagi & Adegoroye, 2023). Within the context of the impoverished state of national economies in Africa, calling for more funding from government, which many of the authors cited above do, is not a particularly feasible solution. Librarians and scholars working in the field of academic reading need to develop more nuanced understandings of what hinders reading amongst young people and how this can be creatively overcome. More attention should be given to the research on multi-lingualism and the students’ abilities to read in English. As Verhoeven (2011:661) points out, by 2042, through migration most of the world will have people working in a language that is not their home language. It is therefore imperative that within the education system ways are found to help students master globally dominant languages such as English (Verhoeven, 2011:678). In the English-speaking countries in Africa, a key challenge to reading is that students must read academic texts in English, which is often their third or fourth language. To improve the English reading speed and breadth of university students, interventions are needed that help students master academic reading skills in English. One such intervention could be for librarians to show students how to use the 4IR technologies so that they can use AI to read the text out loud to them and offer translations of words that students do not understand. This would be an immediately implementable and cost-effective way to begin to address this problem.

Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Libraries

One of the exciting developments of the 4IR has been the establishment of makerspaces in libraries, which can be a key way to address various SDGs, including access to information and access to work. Makerspaces which include robotics, 3D printing and laser cutting, are spaces which have been found to promote active community engagement (Koh, Abbas & Willett, 2018:17). They are also spaces that foster entrepreneurship, enabling students to become work-ready and possibly begin their own businesses based on the ideas they designed in university library makerspaces. Entrepreneurship in library makerspaces was also found in community libraries that had makerspaces both in urban and rural areas (Bergman & McMullen, 2020:811; Ensign & Leupold, 2018:1). Okuonghae (2019:49) found that both low-technology and high-technology library makerspaces enabled communities in Nigeria to explore new ideas and also fostered teamwork and problem-solving. Research has shown that makerspaces are also catalysts for better learning, as students can use multiple technologies to learn through doing (Colegrove, 2017:19). These examples all point to the impactful role that libraries can and should continue to play in helping countries in Africa realise many of the SDGs.

For countries in Africa to develop societal awareness of SDGs, public and academic libraries could play an important role (Ugwu & Ogunremi, 2019). Libraries are uniquely positioned to advocate for accessible information for learning, provide literacy training (Gbenu et al., 2023) and computer literacy training (Adamu, Isah & Ajayi, 2023; Abata-Ebire, Adebowale & Ojokuku, 2018). The work of Hapel (2020) found that when libraries engage in these positive and valuable activities, they become nodes of social trust within communities. Nsibirano and Nsibirano (2023) argue that academic libraries need to play a role in making information accessible to communities outside of university. They focused their research on urban farmers in Kampala, Uganda, and show that when these vegetable farmers were given access to up-to-date, relevant and reliable information from the university library, they were able to implement this information and improve their farming methods and practices. This was only made possible when the university

under study changed the definition of library users to include the community beyond academic staff and students. Research found that the key issue

blocking libraries from providing comprehensive support in the attainment of this goal is the lack of public funding for libraries, library services and

library staff. While it is important that governments in Africa fund public

libraries better, Agosto (2008) suggests that these libraries should generate additional income through actively pursuing grants and donations. An alternative could be making open access information easily accessible to communities in and around universities.

Open Access and Open Scholarship

In her research on open access and postgraduate students at four universities in Nigeria, Onwukanjo (2023) found that libraries played a critical role in helping these students find, navigate and use open access information effectively. While the move to open information is exciting and liberating for many in Africa who, for financial reasons, have been denied access to information, the wealth of information now available can be overwhelming. In light of this, libraries and the librarians who can help people navigate their way through the maze of digitally available open access information are now even more critical than ever before (Ayre & Craner, 2017:173-5). In some cases, libraries have begun to play the role of publishers through their institutional repositories that make open access information freely available. Research on open access information in Tanzanian academic libraries (Mwilongo & Kachota, 2023) highlights the importance of institutional repositories as a platform for the sharing of open access theses, dissertations, and scholarly peer-reviewed research. It is argued that governments should support these platforms far more and provide funding for all academic libraries to have well-functioning institutional repositories in which all the work hosted on these platforms is easily accessible.

While the idea of libraries as publishers promoted by the authors cited above is noble, they do not engage sufficiently in the negative side of open access publishing. Research reviewing thirty-two academic libraries that had library publishers showed that library publishing is a complex and often financially difficult undertaking. Key considerations highlighted by the study included training staff to be able to run a publishing enterprise that met with world-best publishing standards, creating a business plan that enabled the publishing enterprise to be financially sustainable and then both marketing and preserving the manuscripts that were published (Davis, Robertson & Simser, 2018:1-4). Open access publishing and access to open information poses further challenges with the arsenal of misinformation available online, and librarians need to play a key role in helping learners, students and communities learn how to identify misinformation (Jaeger & Taylor, 2021:19). Lastly, more critique of the impact of pay-to-read open access models that significantly reduce the ability of academics in the Global South to publishing in expensive high-impact journals. While this model makes information accessible, it makes it very difficult for academics to publish their work because they do not have the necessary funds to pay high article processing fees.

Managing Digital Media and Fostering Digital Literacy

Academic libraries make use of various digital media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, websites and student learning management systems to share information with university communities. A study of 15 academic libraries in Zimbabwe found that the key challenge faced by these libraries was updating and managing the content of their social media pages and websites (Tsekea & Chigwada, 2023). In South Africa, a survey I conducted in 2022 with five universities, found that libraries that had a dedicated person managing the library’s marketing and website were able to offer up-to-date information, make changes to information quickly and continuously provide notifications about upcoming training effectively. At a few universities, the library provided better communication about university events than the general marketing teams of these universities. This had the effect of making these libraries the ‘go to’ places for students who felt that they could trust the libraries’ information. Both studies found that libraries were able to offer effective marketing of their services to university communities when staff were given adequate training to use these varied platforms effectively.

Learning how to identify misinformation, disinformation and fake news in the digital space is one of the key digital literacy skills that librarians at academic libraries need to teach students. In Africa, authors such as Obinyan and Ikechukwu (2022) and Emiri (2017) address the increasingly urgent need for librarians to offer digital literacy training embedded in or as an extension of their information literacy training. As Baro, Obaro and Aduba (2019:172) found in a survey of several libraries in Africa, librarians rated their skills in ‘database search skills, uploading documents to online platforms, skills in using different social media’ as ‘high’. Where librarians often needed more in-depth and comprehensive digital literacy training was in the use of platforms that make use of artificial intelligence in order to effectively train students and learners.

Libraries need to be or become places that teach integrated literacies, which include information literacy, digital literacy, media literacy and AI literacy. Librarians with their particular skill set are well-placed to offer this type of training, but it will require them to learn new skills as they learn to use AI in the age of the ‘data deluge’ (Frederick, 2020:1). The research by Yoon, Andrews and Ward (2022:1893-4) showed that in America, librarians at academic libraries are well aware of the need to learn how to use AI and teach these skills to students, but in public libraries there was less engagement in AI by librarians. The research by Laybats (2018:168) showed that for academic libraries to be future-fit, their librarians will need to continually receive training so that they remain abreast of the latest developments in AI and other cutting-edge technologies. While the research shows that academic libraries in America in particular, ensure that librarians receive training in AI and other technologies, in Africa there is little research on the use and effective implementation of AI in academic libraries.

Teaching and Learning in Academic Libraries post-COVID-19

While there may not be the same level of training on AI in African academic libraries as there currently is in American academic libraries, the research published in this book points to the important work performed by librarians in Africa in teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and the numerous valuable lessons learnt, which they continue to implement. During the COVID-19 pandemic, online learning was the only way in which teaching and learning could continue. Many people found this mode of teaching very asynchronous, with little class engagement. One study found that when lecturers created ‘virtual office hours’ which were sessions led by the students, in which they brought their questions and concerns to the lecturer after having watched online videos explaining concepts and theory, student participation increased (Rupasinghe, 2023). Students reported that they found this mode very helpful and engaging. As these sessions were solely led by students, they were different to tutorials. This points to the importance of student-led learning in which students have a space in the curriculum and classroom to voice their own concerns and questions. It is argued that this practice should be continued, even when face-to-face contact sessions have resumed.

A study by Agyei and Adu (2023) on the ability of librarians at universities to connect with users during the COVID-19 pandemic showed that libraries were unprepared to connect with users online. The libraries had to implement platforms such as WhatsApp, Moodle, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet and Skype, depending on what platform the university they were working for used. Many librarians did not find these platforms ideal and struggled to find the training they needed to use them effectively. The result was that in the Volta region of Ghana, where the study was conducted, most librarians were not able to remain in effective communication with their clients. In South Africa, well-resourced universities like the Universities of Johannesburg, Cape Town, Pretoria, the Witwatersrand and Stellenbosch were able to easily pivot into the online space and librarians quickly learnt how to use the ‘new’ technologies. At less well-resourced universities, librarians struggled to connect with students, as they found it difficult to gain access to online systems and training on how to use these online learning systems1. This is further supported by Munzhedzi and Mukhwantheli (2023), who found that at universities in South Africa, librarians play an important role in the academic success of students, particularly by teaching students information literacy skills. In most South African academic libraries, student access to the most up-to-date materials via an online system significantly improved the academic success of students. The study highlighted the need for all libraries to transition to online spaces in which almost all material can be accessed online. In Nigeria, the research of Amao-Taiwo, Eki and Ekpe-Iko (2023) pointed to the effectiveness of online learning, particularly when both library staff and students had sufficient training in information and communication technology devices, software, and platforms. They suggest that libraries should continue to facilitate online learning and research communities to foster knowledge-sharing and self-directed learning.

While online access to resources anywhere, anytime, is ideal for students and academics at universities, it is not always practical or sustainable in many African countries. This is largely due to power issues and lack of resources. The offline Internet provides a good alternative in which users who are hampered by connectivity issues are able to continue to access information. Adie, Bisong and Obuop (2023) have created three taxonomies of offline Internet; completely offline, hybridised offline systems and offline servers. Their research found that schools and universities need to encourage students to bring their devices, such as tablets, smart phones and laptops to class and to use them in classes and lectures while they learn. Remote learning remains possible even when students are offline when various forms of offline Internet devices are used in conjunction with a student’s own device. These types of offline learning platforms should keep students engaged and help self-regulated learning if they are to be truly effective (Adie et al., 2023).

Conclusion

As the first chapter within this book has given a broad overview of the impact and importance of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and sustainable development for academic libraries in Africa. Using the lens of the 4IR and the UN SDGs as the two key issues impacting academic libraries in Africa at present, the chapter

Evidence for this was drawn from the preliminary unpublished CHELSA report on the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on South African Libraries, (Neerputh, Satgoor & McCallum 2021).

highlights five areas that libraries need to focus on, address or overcome. In this chapter I have argued that there are five key issues which need to be addressed and developed further by academic libraries and librarians if these spaces are to be future-fit spaces of learning for students and development for research in the future. The chapter critically engaged with some of the most recent literature on these five issues highlighting where further research is needed, more nuanced thinking or problem solving is required, or a different approach might need to be taken.

Literacy levels in Africa remain an ongoing challenge and one of the key issues facing African countries is how to improve the literacy levels of citizens. Libraries need to find innovative ways to engage students in reading. The study by Nkomo and Ngoepe (2023) showed how social media can be a good entry point to reading for many students and learners. I have argued that relying on governments to provide literacy training and support is not a helpful suggestion, as most governments in Africa simply do not have the funds. Librarians need to address the reality that most students at Anglophone universities need to be competent in English, while in Francophone Africa, students need to be competent in French. Using AI tools, librarians could help students improve their literacy rates and command of these languages at very little cost and quite effectively. More research is needed to ascertain how best AI can be used to improve literacy rates of students.

The second key issue impacting libraries in Africa is the drive at many universities to actively work towards helping countries achieve the UN SDGs. Regarding this, the research cited earlier points to the importance of information literacy as a key skill which all students and citizens need to master in order to access the vast and ever-changing wealth of knowledge available online. What is not covered in this volume is the pivotal role that makerspaces in libraries can play to help address SDGs such as poverty eradication and employment for all. More research needs to be conducted to think through more effective ways for libraries to use their makerspaces and other resources to help not only students, but communities, to become better educated, thus empowering people to work towards their own and their communities’ sustainable development.

Fostering digital literacy and helping people to identify misinformation, disinformation and fake news has become a central part of the changing landscape of information literacy. It is clear from the research that in Africa librarians still have not had access to comprehensive and ongoing digital and AI literacy training. For academic libraries in Africa to offer students world-class support, librarians will have to master digital and AI literacy in order to train both students and academic staff at their respective universities.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, librarians at African universities became proficient in training in the online space, although many of them were underprepared for this move to online learning. Some very important lessons have been learnt during the COVID-19 pandemic as to how to make online learning accessible to students. Given the high students-to-staff ratios at universities in Africa, online learning, if performed well, can offer a cost-effective way for librarians to train the large numbers of students who enrol at public universities each year, but as the research in this book shows, online learning in Africa needs to be performed working with both the online and offline use of the Internet so that the effects of limited power supplies in many African countries is managed. In the future, more research needs to be conducted to share how librarians are finding innovative ways to manage this while still offering a high standard of education to students.

Overall, this chapter shows how libraries and librarians are playing a pivotal role in the academic institutions and the communities around them. Most of the research focuses on the needs of students and communities around universities. An area of research that is not sufficiently engaged with in the literature is the role that libraries and librarians play in supporting academic staff at universities in Africa. As African countries continue to develop, more awareness, attention and research should be conducted to understand the critical role that libraries play in the ongoing sustainable development of Africa in the 4IR.

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Introduction and background

The art of reading is one of the most important activities of life through which secondary school learners extend their knowledge, scope of experience and enjoyment. Reading is the foundation of much satisfaction in life. This is supported by Chettri and Rout (2013), who assert that reading provides

1 Sifundo Nkomo, Post-Doctoral Fellow: Digital Transformation and Innovation,

Graduate School of Business Leadership, University of South Africa; nkomos@

unisa.ac.za 2 Prof Mpho Ngoepe, Professor and Executive Director: Library and Information

Services, University of South Africa; ngoepms@unisa.ac.za

an experience through which the individual may expand their horizons of knowledge, identify as well as extend and intensify their interest and gain a deeper understanding of themselves and others. According to Nkomo (2020), reading as a habit is a deliberate effort towards understanding and acquiring knowledge. The emergence of the Internet has created an extraordinary change in the reading environment. In the past few years, as new technology has developed at an alarming rate, reading habits have also changed. Hence technology has been a great instrument for the development of reading habits (Mullan, 2020; Nkomo, 2020; Ifeyinwa, 2022; Tiwari, 2022). Since the acceleration of technology, it has changed the reading behaviour of people, especially secondary school learners. Reading to the youth is not attractive compared with interactive activities on the Internet (Liu, 2005). The status of a ‘reading habit’ has declined amongst the learners. The declining interest in reading culture amongst children, especially those in secondary schools, is a cause for alarm and a challenge to all (Bamise & Akande, 2021).

On the African continent, the reading habit of children is waning. An example is a study conducted by Adeyemi (2020) in Osun State, Nigeria, which revealed that most students have developed into a non-reading society. This is also echoed by Bana (2020), who states that most Nigerian students cannot pronounce a word in each text nor write down the correct spellings of words that their teachers dictate. Zimbabwe is not exempted from matters of a poor reading culture. Voices from various media, academic and political authorities in Zimbabwe unanimously speak about the lack of reading habits amongst learners in secondary education, which impacts not only the educational standards but also the entire nation’s welfare (Mabasa, 2014; Zimunya, 2014). The Daily News (2015) wrote that children in Zimbabwe lack a reading culture as most of them spend more time on WhatsApp, Facebook and other social media networks. This rhymes with Mlay et al.’s (2015) statement, which states that a poor reading habit retards a country’s national growth.

Ngugi and Mbeira (2014) recommend that because of the new technologies, schools should now incorporate Web 2.0 technologies to nurture the reading habits of youths. According to the University of Melbourne, ‘Web 2.0’ is the term used to describe a variety of websites and applications that allow anyone to create and share information online (Thomson, 2020). For this study, Web 2.0 technologies will mean an online communication platform (social networking) that allows its members to share, collect and disseminate content, ideas and information about the topics of their choice. Web 2.0 technologies have proven to be universally addictive for secondary school learners who tend to spend considerable amounts of their time maintaining social connections, making new acquaintances and a broad base of friends during their years of study (Loving & Ochoa, 2010). The increased use of social networking sites amongst learners has no doubt negatively affected learners’ reading habits. Twenge, Martin and Spitsbergen (2018) found that in 2016, one in three United States (US) high school learners did not read for pleasure. In the same period, 82% of 12th graders visited sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram daily for entertainment.

Consequently, the impacts of social media extend to include cutbacks in reading as a habit, studying, and attainment of knowledge because learners spend most of their time chitchatting and gaming. Given the factors outlined here, it seems clear that there is an urgent need to improve the reading habits of learners, as well as to harness new technology so that they can improve their reading habits. The study explored how Web 2.0 technologies can be embraced to nurture the reading habits of secondary school learners in the Bulawayo Metropolitan Province (BMP) in Zimbabwe. The objectives of the study were to:

The structure of this paper appears as follows: After the introduction, the literature review is presented in the second section, including the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) underpinning this study. The research methodology features in the third section, followed by the findings and discussions in the fourth section. The fifth section is about the framework developed for this study. The conclusions of the study are presented in the sixth section.

Theoretical framework

This study utilised the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) developed by Venkatesh, Morris, Davis and Davis (2003) in the article, “User acceptance of information technology: towards a unified view”. The UTAUT model aims to explain technology acceptance and is based on eight technology acceptance theories or models. The acceptance of UTAUT has not been limited to one or a few cultures, but the model has been accepted and used cross-culturally in all continents of the world (Machimbidza, 2014). The theory holds that four key constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions, directly determine usage intention and behaviour (Venkatesh & Davis, 2003). The researchers considered the UTAUT relevant to this study as its key constructs were critical in addressing the objectives of the study. This model also incorporated four moderators: gender, age, voluntariness and experience, to account for dynamic influences. These moderators are used to influence the dependent and independent variables of user acceptance. The UTAUT model was used to evaluate the success of new technology. Because the use of Web

2.0 technologies by Zimbabwean learners, especially those in the BMP, is relatively new, this model is applicable to understand the factors influencing the use of these technologies and determine whether they can be adopted in improving reading interests. This study examines Web 2.0 technologies that are introduced to the learners to improve their reading habits, and UTAUT, as a model guiding this study, was critical to map the way forward.

Literature review

Learners use different types of Web 2.0 technologies. The types and frequency of using Web 2.0 technologies by secondary school learners are linked with the UTAUT constructs of effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, the resultant user intentions and behaviour. The moderating conditions from the UTAUT model adopted were gender, experiences, and voluntariness for this research objective. The ‘effort expectancy construct’ and other facilitating conditions influenced the different types of Web 2.0 technologies used by secondary school learners. The issue of different types of Web 2.0 technologies is linked to facilitating conditions. Potential users can only use a technology that has been introduced to them (Ahmad Ismail & Abduljabbar, 2022). The evolution of Web 2.0 and social software alter how students communicate, collaborate, access, learn and seek new information (Capo & Orellana, 2011). Web 2.0 technologies are fundamentally reshaping and realigning many aspects of the communication loop: the people with whom teachers, students and parents communicate, how they communicate, what they communicate about, as well as where and when they communicate. Recent surveys show that although Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook, MySpace, wikis and blogs are part of nearly every student’s home life, these technologies are barely used in schools (Lemke, Coughlin, Garcia, Reifsneider & Baas, 2009; Nakabayashi, 2018). Studies have revealed that Facebook is the most popular social tool used, where 85% to 99% of tertiary students use it for different purposes (Matney & Borland, 2009). In a study conducted by Kojo, Agyekum and Arthur (2018), they observed that out of 478 respondents, 145 (about 30% of the students) stated that the social media site they use most frequently is WhatsApp, with 123 being active on Facebook, while 88 indicated that they used Instagram and 122 did not specify.

Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Google+ and Renren have the potential to become important disruptive technologies (Christensen, 1997). Capo and Orellana (2011) conducted a study with 11 to 16-year-old students to determine which Web 2.0 technologies they were using if they were using them at school and whether they were using them to support learning. The findings showed that a total of 30 different Web 2.0 sites were identified by the students, including social networking sites. The most popular sites were MSN (88.0%), Bebo (67.0%) and Facebook (59.0%). Students in school used each of these 30 sites, although Bebo was not used for learning. The students were asked to generate a mind map of their technology usage and include how they used these technologies. Furthermore, this study found the use of Web 2.0 technologies in schools to be poorly understood by both teachers and students. Students did not appear to be using these technologies for in-depth learning, and only a few students mapped the technologies for use as creative activities.

Blogging was not a particularly popular activity across the sample, but where it occurred, it often did so within the arena of the social networking site. Bebois was one site that enabled its users to post on blogs (Lenhart & Madden, 2005). In this sense, the blogs that belonged to social networking sites were perceived to be for communicating ‘random stuff that you find funny’ (Lenhart & Madden, 2005). Learners at one school described blogs as being quite popular to read, though not for production. For one learner, blogs were a way to find out about popular sites on the Internet, with specific reference to learning; this included history and geography projects (Luckin et al., 2009).

The social media generation is always online, reading updates on trivial issues, rumours, shows, football news and celebrity gossip. However, the more they read, the more they fail. They become so knowledgeable in the things that do not matter and become so ignorant of things that matter (Nigerian Tribune, 2015). The analysis of the study conducted by Abidin and Pour-Mohammed (2011) in Malaysia shows that students spent one to three hours online daily. The findings also showed that students emphasised using the Internet for social media; although only (37.5%) of the respondents had computers at home with Internet access, most of them spent one to three hours online daily. The majority of the participants (65.8%) spent one to three hours online every day. Only 1.3% of the respondents spend more than six hours online.

There are negative and positive effects of Web 2.0 technologies on the reading habits of learners. These negative and positive effects are linked to the UTAUT construct of social influence, facilitating conditions and the resultant user intentions and behaviour. The moderating conditions from the UTAUT model adopted were gender, age, experiences and voluntariness. Literature suggests that several factors, particularly technological changes, are likely to positively and negatively influence the reading habits of children (Chettri & Rout, 2013). The increased use of social networking sites amongst students has, without a doubt, negatively affected the students’ reading interests. As Shabi and Udofia (2009) pointed out, the reading culture of learners has been washed down the drain because of the advancement of technology and the advent of social media. One of the principal causes for the dwindling speed at which students read is the invasion of social media (Shabi & Udofia, 2009).

According to Agwu and Kalu (2011), abusing new technologies contributes to students’ poor reading. They opine that in this era of information and communication technology (ICT), the general orientation of young people has unconsciously changed from reading and the love of books to these new technologies. They further emphasised that students now live in the iPod, laptop, iPhone, Facebook, Twitter and blog generation. Hence reading has been literally sacrificed at the altar of modern technologies. Agwu and Kalu (2011) reported that in this age where Internet browsing seems to be the trend amongst Nigerian youths, reading a good book in a quiet corner of the school library or at home has become an archaic idea. Gómez-González et al., (2011) note that nowadays, nearly everyone belongs to social networking sites where they spend several hours per day posting their locations on Facebook and tweeting about personal daily lives. Marsh (2012) relents that social networking is time-consuming as students gradually become addicted. Students skip the time to engage in meaningful activities such as reading and utilising the school library and engage in social networking activities such as chatting and posting pictures and videos (Mbachu & Durdyev, 2011). Mbachu and Durdyev (2011) add that libraries have witnessed low patronage since the advent of the Internet. Some writers would posit that social networking is a form of distraction, and the act of multitasking has led to poor academic performance of students. Karpinski and Duberstein (2009) report that most students who use Facebook every day are under-achieving as compared to those who shun the site. Technology is slowly but very steadily taking over the control of adolescents’ lives, and the cultivation of a good reading interest does not exist anymore; empty school and public libraries are silent witnesses of this dreaded picture (Thakur & Kumar, 2014).

However, as shown in a survey by Akanda, Hoq and Hasan (2013), the Internet could be a good place to read books, magazines and newspapers. Young people continue to be attracted to the Internet in larger numbers. It can be surmised that with different sources of information on the Internet, the Internet can play a supplementary role in increasing the reading interest of the students rather than diminishing it. For this to happen, students need to be guided by their teachers and guardians to use the Internet and its services constructively rather than spend long hours on the Internet playing games or engaging in other non-productive activities (Akanda, Hoq & Hasan, 2013). Electronic media has changed how people perceive reading and how printed materials are utilised for reading (Abidin & Pour-Mohammed, 2011). According to Cumaoglu, Sacici and Torun (2013), printed resources have been replaced with electronic resources, and the habits related to newspaper, magazine and book-reading have undergone changes.

In developing a framework for embracing Web 2.0 technologies to nurture the reading habits of secondary school learners, some steps need to be followed. According to Matingwina and Raju (2017), some procedures are normally taken when developing a framework to be adopted. An important step in developing a needs-based information strategy is identifying the problem and its context. Problem identification involves three important steps: needs analysis, assessment of existing resources (information dissemination programmes) and readiness assessment (Matingwina & Raju, 2017). Goal-setting is an important step in developing a framework (Harmsworth, Turpin & TQEF National Co-ordination Team, 2000:1). According to the Jed Foundation (2011:20), a goal statement should articulate specific, measurable goals whose achievement can be readily observed and measured. Before implementing a framework, it is essential to explore whether a programme has strong empirical or theoretical support and addresses the unique problems of students. It is important to choose evidence-based practices to ensure that resources are invested in programmes likely to achieve positive changes (Matingwina & Raju, 2017). This stage involves the actual design of the information dissemination framework. This may be achieved by analysing the data that would have been gathered in the first stage, where the student needs understanding, resource assessment and readiness assessment. The data should be merged with findings in the literature and proposals by key stakeholders, such as administrators and school librarians, to develop a needs-based framework (Matingwina & Raju, 2017). Evaluation is a systematic process for collecting, analysing and reporting information to determine whether programmes are effective (DeJong et al., 2006). An evaluation plan should focus on both outcome and process evaluation (Chinman, Imm & Wandersman, 2004). Implementation is a key stage in the development of an information dissemination framework, and as such, it needs to be well-planned (Langford, 2006).

Despite the research and surveys conducted by the aforementioned researchers, in which they expounded on the importance and modalities of technology and improving reading habits of secondary school students, there is no clear study which focused on developing a framework for embracing Web

2.0 technologies to nurture the reading habits of secondary school learners. Most of the reviewed studies have strived to show how technology and related tools have been working as catalysts to improve the reading habits of secondary school students. There is a growing body of research on the theory and practices in the field of technology and reading habits of secondary school learners. The majority of existing studies have generally concluded that what students read is decided to a large extent by their interests and the content of the materials (McGeown, Osborne, Warhurst, Norgate & Duncan, 2015; Rosli, Razali, Zamil, Noor & Baharuddin, 2017; Adeyemi, 2020). However, a considerable body of research has also reported negative or mixed results of using technology in reading (Arifin, Wahab, Teh & Otman, 2018; R. Ullah & H. Ullah, 2019). However, the emerging literature has already acknowledged the high value of adopting technology to improve the reading habits of secondary school students (Banchisi, 2021; Bamise & Akande, 2021). The inconsistencies arise due to the varying methodologies adopted and different measurement scales. Therefore, this research is an initial effort to compensate for the existing literature deficiencies by focusing on developing a framework for embracing Web 2.0 technologies to nurture the reading habits of secondary school learners.

Research methodology

The researchers settled for a qualitative approach to achieve the objectives of the study. The case study research design was adopted because it was considered to be the most appropriate design for the purpose of the study. Hence, the study adopted a multiple case study design using different BMP secondary schools as cases. The use of a multiple case study design was considered critical to this study, as it allowed a broader perspective to be applied across the secondary schools in the BMP. A multiple case study allowed the researchers to achieve a level of saturation that ultimately revealed common issues and themes regarding the adoption of mobile devices. According to Yin (2009), a multiple case study yields more robust results than a single case study; it builds up a general explanation model that fits each case in the study and provides a means of comparison. The other advantage of this design was that the researchers managed to use the results to compare and reach relevant conclusions. Vannoni (2014) says that the multiple case study design enables one to compare the results from each case and provide the literature with an important influence from contrast and similarities supported. The design enabled the researcher to be viable and realistic. Hence, this design was appropriate and viable for this research study because it dealt with the real problem that the secondary school learners are not reading.

The population of the study included secondary school learners and school librarians from the fifty-four secondary schools in the BMP. The BMP comprises five districts for secondary schools: Bulawayo Central, Imbizo, Khami, Mzilikazi and Reigate. School librarians were included in the study, as most learners read from these libraries, especially in Zimbabwe, where the cost of living is too high, and parents cannot afford to purchase reading materials. This was supported by Zimbabwe Reads (2014), which states that Zimbabweans live from hand to mouth, hence, parents can no longer afford to buy books for their children. To find those cases or units, the researchers used quota sampling. Quota sampling was used in two stages: firstly, to extract secondary schools included in the study and, secondly, to extract secondary school learners. Quota sampling was categorised according to district, public or private school, and, lastly, according to the availability of school libraries. Quota sampling is not dependent on the presence of the sampling frames. The researchers chose quota sampling mainly because it allowed them to sample the sub-group of great interest to the study.

Data were collected from ten secondary schools in the BMP comprising private and public schools. According to the rule of thumb, focus group projects most often:

Since there were many learners from public and other private schools, the focus groups were divided into two per school and were segmented into fifteen each. There were few learners from other private schools like the Christian Brothers College and the Dominican Convent, so it was just one focus group of fifteen learners. So, in total, the researchers had fourteen groups of fifteen learners each. In reality, most projects have some elements that require special attention, and it may be relatively rare for a project to match all four of these criteria (Morgan, 1997:36). For this study, the rule of thumb did not apply, as the researchers had fourteen groups which were necessary for this study. This is supported by Sunday (2016), who states that focus groups (guided by a set of questions) should be interactive with a group small enough for everyone to have a chance to talk and large enough to provide a diversity of opinions. The researcher recorded all the conversations to assist when analysing the data. In total, there were fourteen focus groups and two hundred and ten learners who participated in the study. Before the actual interview, the researchers explained to the participants the purpose of the interview. The participants were informed that participation was voluntary and that they had a right to discontinue or stop the engagement if they felt uncomfortable during the interview. The participants were further ensured that they would remain anonymous and that confidentiality would always be kept. The interviews lasted between an hour and two hours.

Semi-structured interviews were used to elicit information from the school librarians of the selected schools where the research was conducted. Semistructured interviews were useful as they allowed the researchers to frame appropriate questions and, most importantly, rely on the participants to provide information that was useful to the study.

The discussion was centred on the following: ascertaining the types and frequency of using Web 2.0 technologies used by secondary school learners in the BMP in Zimbabwe; finding out the negative and positive effects of Web 2.0 technologies on the reading habits of the learners in the BMP in Zimbabwe; and developing a framework for embracing Web 2.0 technologies to nurture the reading habits of these learners. The questions were asked to learn more about the frequency of use and the positive and negative effects of Web 2.0 technologies on reading. Data were analysed thematically according to the objectives of the study.

Ethical consideration

The University of South Africa approved the ethical clearance: 2016_ IS57431663_043. Participation in the study was undertaken voluntarily and anonymously with the learners’ consent.

Research findings and discussions

Types and frequency of using Web 2.0 technologies

The UTAUT model argues that for technology to be adopted and used, there should be “facilitating conditions”. These conditions make it easier for the intended user to adopt and use a given technology (Davies, Bagozz & Warshaw, 1992). This was an important step to understanding which Web 2.0 technologies the participants used. The learners knew what Web

2.0 technologies were, although some were more familiar with the term ‘social media’.

Learners mentioned that they are familiar with Web 2.0 technologies which include WhatsApp, Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, Pinterest and Wattpad. This is in line with recent surveys by Lemke, Coughlin, Garcia, Reifsneider and Baas (2017) and Nakabayashi (2018) that Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook, MySpace, wikis and blogs are part of nearly every student’s home life. Several learners mentioned that they normally use WhatsApp and Facebook. The reason might be that mobile data bundles for WhatsApp and Facebook are cheaper, as some schools do not allow learners to access their social media accounts using the school Wi-Fi or to bring their own gadgets. When the school librarians were asked which Web 2.0 technologies they were familiar with, they mentioned Facebook and WhatsApp. One female librarian said she only knows of WhatsApp, which she uses for chatting with her family and friends.

The participants were asked how frequently they used these Web 2.0 technologies. Some learners mentioned that they used WhatsApp every day. For example, one participant indicated that:

I use WhatsApp all the time. I sleep, dream, and eat WhatsApp. The only time I am not using WhatsApp is when I am writing a test because even when it’s during lesson time, I usually check for any updates.

The findings indicated that some learners spend most of their time on Web

2.0 technologies. Some learners mentioned that they are on social media all the time, while others spend more than two to five hours daily. Zimbabwean learners are not the only ones who spend more time accessing Web 2.0 technologies. An analysis of the study conducted by Bamise and Akande (2021) shows that students in Nigeria spend one to three hours online daily. Another study by Adeyemi (2020) shows that students spend more than six hours online.

Various librarians from public schools mentioned that they use WhatsApp, although a few have WhatsApp groups with their learners. Some technology-savvy librarians pointed out that they also use Facebook, LinkedIn, wikis, podcasts, tagging, Skype, and Twitter for personal use. Only librarians from private schools mentioned that they were in the process of opening Facebook pages for their libraries.

The research findings revealed that learners access Web 2.0 technologies from different places, including school premises, home, school library and computer laboratory, public transport, Telone Wi-Fi zones and Internet cafes. Access is defined by Backhouse and Chauke (2020) as the ability of individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, and other devices. The learners revealed that they connect to the Internet using different gadgets, including cell phones, tablets, desktop computers and laptops, to access these Web 2.0 technologies. These findings are supported by the research conducted by Bower (2015), who states that learners have high levels of access to Web 2.0 technologies.

During the interview with librarians from public schools, several mentioned that access to Web 2.0 technologies was prohibited in their schools, although some learners accessed them without permission. One librarian from a public school mentioned that the library received donations of tablets from a certain organisation, but only four and not enough for the whole school.

During the focus groups, the participants mentioned that they use Web 2.0 technologies for different purposes, including communicating with friends, having discussions with teachers and librarians, accessing novels and newspapers, and obtaining updates on what is happening around the globe and entertainment. Kabweza (2014) noted that smartphones would allow students to connect to various knowledge sources on the Internet to improve their knowledge. In order to capitalise on Web 2.0 technologies, educators need to first understand the types of Web 2.0 technologies that are available and their various features to best use them for specific purposes (Redecker, Aja-Muka, Bacigalupo & Punie, 2009).

Negative and positive effects of Web 2.0 technologies on reading habits

In tackling this research objective, the section was guided by the UTAUT construct of social influence, facilitating conditions and the resultant user intentions and behaviour. The moderating conditions from the UTAUT model adopted were gender, age, experiences, and voluntariness for this research objective. The positive influence includes downloading and uploading novels on WhatsApp, Facebook, Pinterest, and Wattpad, and easy and affordable access to reading materials anywhere and anytime. The findings showed that there are some positive impacts in the adoption of Web 2.0 technologies to cultivate the reading habits of learners. It also revealed that learners are already using Web 2.0 technologies.

One of the participants said, “We joined Facebook groups that upload novels and short stories, but the authors don’t send all chapters because they want us to buy the stories, and we don’t have money, so we end up not reading.” Some of the students are already downloading novels on WhatsApp, Facebook, Pinterest, and Wattpad, although some learners mentioned that some books downloaded via WhatsApp were scanned and sometimes not readable. Ngugi and Mbeira (2014) recommend that because of these new technologies, schools should now incorporate these technologies to stimulate the reading habits of the youths. This was supported by Chettri and Rout (2013), who suggested that several factors, particularly technological changes, are likely to influence the reading habits of children. A study by Owusu-Acheaw and Larson (2014) in Ghana indicated that learners’ reading habits could be improved by incorporating Web 2.0 technologies. The librarians, especially from private schools, also mentioned that they have WhatsApp groups with their learners, where they inform them of any interesting books available in the library. This was also supported by Muzawazi (2016), who stated that the Internet has made good contributions to the education system of Zimbabwe. One learner even said: “It’s easier to share resources amongst ourselves through social media. We usually share novels, amongst other things, so social media is very important.”

The findings showed that there are some negative impacts on the adoption of Web 2.0 technologies in improving the reading habits of learners. In the focus groups, some learners expressed that social media was destructive as they spent most of their time chatting on WhatsApp and Facebook with their friends, negatively influencing their reading interests. One librarian mentioned that learners were using social media for all the wrong reasons. Some learners used social media for entertainment; others indicated using YouTube to download and stream movies. One learner boastfully said social media is for entertainment. This was echoed by Mutula (2013) when he revealed that social media platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter, have the potential to become important disruptive technologies. From the findings, it was clear that books found on Facebook did not have the full chapters as some authors would only upload a few chapters of the book, and should one want the entire book, one will have to purchase it. Another problem highlighted by the participants was that most of the books found there were not from Zimbabwe. This means that authors and publishers in Zimbabwe should now embrace technologies to meet the needs of their clientele.

Proposed framework

The proposed framework, as shown in Figure 1.1, is based on the findings as well as the literature reviewed in this study. Schools and public libraries might adopt this framework in nurturing the reading habits of secondary school learners using Web 2.0 technologies.

The paragraphs below explain the suggested model:

Web 2.0 technologies

As illustrated in Figure 1.1, there are different types of Web 2.0 technologies to choose from: blogs, social bookmarking and wikis, to name just a few. The learners need to know the different purposes of using each Web 2.0 technology. For example, learners could use Pinterest and Wattpad to download some reading materials and then use WhatsApp or Facebook to discuss what they would have read. These technologies revolve and are not stagnant. That is why, in the model, the processes are in a cycle.

Access

Learners need to access these Web 2.0 technologies so that they are able to use them to improve their reading habits. Therefore, some schools and public libraries need to change their policies and offer free Wi-Fi so that learners would be able to access these Web 2.0 technologies. These schools and public libraries should limit access times and content so that their learners have discipline in using these technologies. Learners would need to discipline themselves in order to manage the use of Web 2.0 technologies. Web 2.0 tools support social interaction in the learning process.

Training

Learners need to be trained on how best to use Web 2.0 technologies. The librarian, or even the teacher, needs to be trained first, and then they can train the learners. Adopting the chosen Web 2.0 technologies will be easier if learners are trained. Learners must first be trained to select the Web 2.0 technologies best suited for improving their reading habits. Afterwards, they would choose the best technology to adopt to improve their reading habits. Learners need to research the chosen Web 2.0 technology. Having knowledge will help in engaging and adopting these Web 2.0 technologies. Also, having knowledge about Web 2.0 technologies will help them to adopt these technologies to improve their reading. Having proper knowledge of Web 2.0 technologies will provide social interaction with their peers in the learning process. It will also enable students to work at the conceptual level of understanding about authentic reading materials where they can read, discover relationships, discern patterns, develop a deep understanding of content, collaboratively build knowledge and ultimately cultivate their reading habits.

Comprehend

Learners need to understand what the whole process is all about. Learners will have the ability to process the Web 2.0 technologies chosen, understand their meaning, and integrate what they already know. Comprehending is influenced by the learners’ skills and the ability to process the information.

Apply

When the learners have understood everything about Web 2.0 technologies, they will need to implement what they have been trained to do. Learners will then choose the Web 2.0 technologies they feel are the best for adoption so that they incorporate them into their reading schedules. By application, it would mean they have performed all the groundwork of knowing, training and evaluating those technologies.

Evaluation

Not everything found on the Internet is of value. When the learners are knowledgeable about which Web 2.0 technology to adopt, they need to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of that adopted Web 2.0 technology. By evaluating technologies, learners will also have discipline when using that Web 2.0 technology.

When undertaking a research study, the researcher tries to provide a solution to a problem identified and give some recommendations. This entails that when the recommendations provided in this study are implemented, there might be a huge improvement in the reading habits of learners. The current study identified the challenges faced by learners who need to be addressed so that their reading habits are cultivated through adopting Web

2.0 technologies. The idea of adopting Web 2.0 technologies has barely been approached from this point that the researcher has investigated. The current study is critical and necessary in improving the reading habits of learners if the model suggested is adopted. The research that has been conducted, especially in the field of Web 2.0 technologies (Tella & Akande, 2007; Moyo, 2012; Chipangura, 2014; Ngugi & Mbeira, 2014; Shehu, N. & Shehu, A., 2014) tended to look at the provision of these technologies on the library services. This study proposes the issue of adopting Web 2.0 technologies in education, especially in improving the reading habits of learners. The study is expected to further help shape positive attitudes towards the use of technologies, thereby impacting positively on the reading habits of learners in Zimbabwean secondary schools while improving the quality of reading by learners in the county. The suggested model might help schools know the factors affecting the adoption of Web 2.0 technologies, enabling them to tailor their services in a way that makes them appealing to learners. The study is expected to influence some of the policies of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education; if these policies also take into consideration the suggested recommendations, it will be easier for the schools to also adopt them. Schools are under the management and supervision of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, so whatever the ministry suggests, the schools adopt.

Conclusion and recommendations

This study showed that the reading habits of secondary school learners have declined due to social media technologies. Indisputably, it is obvious that the use of social media has constituted great havoc on the reading habits of secondary school learners. Some learners use Web 2.0 technologies for the wrong reasons, such as communicating with friends and entertainment only, although others are downloading novels and some learners are reading newspapers. The study concludes that if some Web 2.0 technologies are embraced, the reading habits of secondary school learners would be nurtured. The researchers recommend that relevant stakeholders, for instance, teachers and librarians, properly train learners on how to best embrace Web

2.0 technologies in order to improve their reading habits. It is recommended that a further study could be conducted to identify the social media platform that contributes to pupils’ better reading habits.

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The Research Activities of Post-graduate Students in Four Universities in North-Central Nigeria

Stella Amarachukwu Onwukanjo1

Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State

Abstract

The study was carried out to determine the roles of libraries in the world of open access as it correlates to the research activities of post-graduate students in four universities in North-Central Nigeria (NCN). The study was anchored on five objectives: (1) to find out how libraries support open access for research of post-graduate students in NCN; (2) to ascertain the characteristics of open access documents for research in the four universities;

(3) to find out the format in which open access content appears in libraries to support post-graduate research; (4) to find out how self-archiving has helped post-graduate students in their research activities; (5) to find out how the open access mandate has helped the post-graduate students bibliographic visibility towards partial fulfilment of their post-graduate degrees. A sampling fraction of 3.8% was used to select 420 post-graduate students from a population of 11 036 as a purposive sampling technique. A hypothesis would be tested at a 0.5 level of significance, and data would be presented using frequency tables and percentages. The hypothesis would be analysed using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient to determine the relationship of the compound independent variable to the dependent variable. The findings from the objectives are that the library is an anchor that guides open access for research amongst post-graduate students in all the universities. The study concluded by stating that there is a need for the university authorities to fund the university libraries for robust and not scanty open access, and there must be open access practices for excellent post-graduate research. The study recommended that all the universities in

Stella Amarachukwu Onwukanjo (PhD) CLN (senior lecturer), Library and Information Technology Department, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State; stellaradiant@yahoo.com

Nigeria and globally should have open access to their libraries for enhanced

academic achievement and excellent post-graduate research. Keywords: libraries, open access, correlates, post-graduate students, North-Central Nigeria (NCN).

A Literature Review

Kardo J. Mwilongo1

Mzumbe University

Abstract

This study examined the role of Tanzanian academic libraries in promoting scholarly communication through open access. A desktop documentary review was used to specifically study the status of open access platforms, ways of promoting open access scholarly communication, and factors deterring academic libraries from fostering scholarly communication through open access. The desktop documentary review involved seven university repositories purposely selected from the directory of institution repositories (OpenDOAR). Quantitative and qualitative survey designs on the open access repositories were used. The information associated with the university repositories was gathered from their respective web pages. A documentary review of the studies on open access scholarly communication was conducted to gain insights into the phenomenon under study. The surveyed data were both quantitatively and qualitatively analysed. Quantitative data were analysed using Microsoft Excel, a computer application software, whereas qualitative data were subjected to the content analysis method. The findings indicate that the surveyed repositories were operational and guided by policy, whereas library websites, repositories and digital libraries are used in promoting open access scholarly communication. However, the factors that deter academic libraries from promoting open access scholarly communication are related to financial, infrastructure, human resources or expertise and university management. The study recommends that Tanzanian universities improve planning for open access, commitment, support and engagement in the training and retraining of its practitioners for effective scholarly communication.

1 Kardo J. Mwilongo, Librarian, Mzumbe University, Morogoro; kmwilongo@

mzumbe.ac.tz 2 Beth Kachota, Assistant Librarian, Mzumbe University, Morogoro; bkachota@

mzumbe.ac.tz

Keywords: academic libraries, open access, scholarly communication, scholarly works, institutional repository, library website, Tanzania.

Introduction

The advanced development in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has impacted and changed the roles of many areas in today’s society, including academic libraries, in promoting scholarly communication through the dissemination of scholarly works (Dintoe, 2018:3). As a result, most institutions focus on digital technology in terms of tools, techniques and sources used for conducting academic works in all areas of science as well as ways of making research visibility for scholarly communication (Trotter et al., 2014:6). The role of academic libraries is to provide the university community with formal and informal scholarly communication processes including Open Access (OA) journals in their library catalogues and e-journals through depositing their research outputs in open access platforms for scholarly communication (Powdwal, 2017:2). It is up to the libraries to set up and manage open access platforms for scholarly communication. Scholarly refers to a system through which research and other academic works are created, evaluated for quality, disseminated to the scholarly community and preserved for future use (Klain-Gabbay & Shoham, 2016:4). In light of this fact, Jain (2012:8) observed that academic libraries have a role in ensuring that open access is built up with the following features to support scholarly communication: freely available to scholarly communication, free of copyright and licensing restrictions, and materials are available online and can be freely used by anyone. Most academic libraries in developed regions, such as European and North American countries, have witnessed these open access features and are tremendously advanced in scholarly communication.

In developing countries, this endeavour has been fairly earmarked, and efforts to become effective in open access scholarly communication remained unrevealed (Mwilongo, 2018:3; UNESCO, 2019:11; Huang, Cox & Sbaffi, 2021:5). In Tanzania, Dulle (2010:3) and Mwinyimbegu (2019:9) observed that poor research conditions and researchers’ low Internet self-efficacy such as inadequate information for search and online publishing skills, and a lack of policy guidelines on the use of open access are the main problems facing academic libraries in promoting scholarly communication to use open access. In addition, Mwilongo (2018:7), Muneja and Ndenje-Sichalwe (2019:10), Nunda and Elia (2019:6), and Kayungi, Ndenje-Sichalwe and Manda (2021:5) point out other related issues of open access for scholarly communication. However, fewer issues were addressed regarding the role of academic libraries in promoting scholarly communication through open access platforms, which this chapter intends to examine. In this regard, academic libraries have a role in ensuring that quality and sufficient scholarly works are frequently uploaded and available for use. In this, Vasile et al., (2017:13) opine that academic libraries are custodians of the institutional repositories and have a role in managing the collection more efficiently to easily disseminate the research activities and preserve digital assets generated by researchers.

Objectives

The main objective of this chapter is to examine the role of Tanzania academic libraries in promoting scholarly communication through open access. Specifically, this chapter intends to address three main research questions:

Review of the Literature

Perspectives of open access in scholarly communication

Open access provides the opportunity for wider access to scholarly communication. In view of this, scholarly communication through open access leads to self-archiving, the main strategy for institutional repository development (Mangai & Ganesan, 2021:7). Open access connects people with information and promotes greater access to scholarly works. Open access has potentially increased scholarly communication, access and citation because of increased numbers of downloads (Mierzecka, 2019:4). Most academic libraries in developed countries have, over the years, begun promoting themselves to a new environment for scholarly communication through open access, institutional repositories and preprints (Sandy & Mattern, 2018:12). This is attributed to the explosion of Internet activities in open access journals which had been available since 1990 following the widespread availability of Internet services. It was further noted that the idea and practice of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term ‘open access’ was formally created (Swan, 2012:7). Before this endeavour, scholarly communication was carried out through observation of a phenomenon and new experiments whereby scientists shared data and information via personal letters; a method used in transferring information related to research carried out between individuals and groups (Fjällbrant, 2012:10). Open access came into being to improve visibility, global presence, increase accessibility and collaboration which impacted both citations and applications of scholarly works, and further encouraging scholarly communication (Harley, Acord, Earl-Novell, Lawrence & King, 2010:11).

Ways of scholarly communication through open access

Scholarly communication refers to the system through which research and other scholarly works are created, evaluated for quality, disseminated to the scholarly community, and preserved for future use. It promotes a shared system of research and scholarship (Lynch, 2020:12). Academic libraries need to develop new resources and services which support the facilitation of scholarly communication through open access platforms, including the university repository. Chewe et al., (2021:9) argue that academic libraries have to use Internet services to access preserved institutional resources. The academic libraries and the librarians have a role to ensure that the available platforms, such as the Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC), institutional repository, digital library and library websites are crucial and properly managed to promote open access scholarly communication (Kassahun & Nsala, 2015:12; Sejane, 2017:9). The institutional repository software, mostly DSpace and Eprint, are capable of hosting, preserving and providing open access to scholarly works and thus enable scholarly communication (Ramdas, 2012:9; Nemati-Anaraki & Tavassoli-Farahi, 2018:10-11). Open access for scholarly communication has the potential to reach through distance learning, and thus academic libraries have to ensure that they sincerely support the academic works of researchers and the academic community (Mwilongo, 2018:8). Assessment of the quality of open access collections based on the recommended guidelines such as the institutional repository and quality assurance policies, are important for effective scholarly communication (Sejane, 2017:10; Shapiro, 2019:12).

Factors influencing promotion of scholarly communication through open access

Efforts of academic libraries to promote open access scholarly communication are generally influenced by various factors that are subject to the institution’s financial status, infrastructures, human resources or expertise and institutional management (Klain-Gabbay & Shoham, 2018:12; Narayan et al., 2018:13; Mwinyimbegu, 2019:11). On financial status, Muneja and Ndenje-Sichalwe (2019:14) narrate that universities have inadequate funding to support open access management; training, maintenance and repair of open access platforms; subscription to other data sources; and professional development programs. The academic library budget for most universities in Tanzania and other developing countries keeps dwindling following the scarce financial resources to allocate to all the university units and services. In addition to the infrastructure, the literature indicates that access to Internet services has positively influenced academic libraries in fostering open access scholarly communication (Mwilongo, 2018:11; Mwinyimbegu, 2018:12; Kayungi, Ndenje-Sichalwe & Manda, 2021:9). For example, Narayan et al., (2018:15) argue that poor Internet connection for open access of scholarly works contribute to the dilution of the quality of research outputs of most developing countries researchers. Other factors are related to university management support and commitment to academic libraries’ open access initiatives (Mwilongo, 2018:9; Narayan et al., 2018:8). The issue of lack of technology-know-how to locate open access resources and the inability to choose from the vast number of information resources is always influencing library information professionals and the academic community in promoting scholarly communication (Klain-Gabbay & Shoham, 2018:10). However, a low level of awareness exists about existent open access repositories despite their availability on websites and institutional repositories and poor information literacy skills to search online materials influence open access scholarly communication (Muneja & Ndenje-Sichalwe, 2019:12; Mwinyimbegu, 2019:9).

Methodology

This study used a desktop documentary review to examine the role of Tanzanian academic libraries in promoting scholarly communication through open access. The survey involved seven higher learning institutions purposely selected from the global directory of institution repositories (OpenDOAR, 2022). These institutions were the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) in Dar es Salaam, the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Morogoro, the Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Science (MUHAS) in Dar es Salaam and the Mzumbe University (MU) in Mororogo. Other repositories were the Open University of Tanzania (OUT), the Saint Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT) in Mwanza and the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA) in Zanzibar. Quantitative and qualitative desktop documentary reviews on the institutional repositories were used. The information associated with the institutional repositories was gathered from the respective institutions’ web pages. A documentary review of the studies on open access scholarly communication was conducted to gain insights into the phenomenon under study. The surveyed data were both quantitatively and qualitatively analysed. Quantitative data were analysed using Microsoft Excel, a computer application software, whereas qualitative data were subjected to the content analysis method.

Findings and discussion

Status of the open access institutional repositories

The findings of the desktop documentary review in open access institutional repositories for scholarly communication indicate that all desktop documentary reviews in open access repositories were available and easily accessed from their respective pages. The repositories comprised multidisciplined, electronic institutional information resources and were freely accessible. The collections comprised publications, conference papers, journal articles and books. Table 3.1 presents detailed information on the surveyed open access institutional repositories.

Source: Open access repositories (OpenDOAR, 2022).

Table 3.1 shows that all the repositories are operational and have policies for digital collection management. The majority, six or 75% of the university

repositories employed DSpace software for digital collection management. In this, academic libraries have a role in ensuring that they select the best management software for effective scholarly communication of the digital collection. Despite the fact that the institutional repositories were established between the years 2012 and 2016, they are experienced, but they fairly hold few collections irrespective of their time in existence. Figure 3.1 presents the time when the university repositories were established.

Findings, 2022).

Figure 3.1 shows that MUHAS and OUT established their repositories in 2012, followed by SUZA in 2014, SUA and SAUT in 2015, and UDSM and MU in 2016. The differences in the time of establishment may be contributed to various factors, including the infrastructure for open access scholarly communication, insufficient experts for the establishment and financial issues. However, the OUT established its repository earlier than its counterparts because of the nature of the programmes offered, which are distance-based learning and thus had to break the distance barrier in education by the provision of open access scholarly communication. In this endeavour, academic libraries have to promote sharing of scholarly information, widen interaction of open access platforms, and enhance recognition of one’s academic capability and the impact of the preserved knowledge.

Table 3.1 and Figure 3.2 present the distribution of uploads for open access scholarly communication of the university repositories.

Findings, 2022).

Findings in Figure 3.2 show that UDSM, MU and SUA have a substantial number of uploads compared to other respective repositories. The number of uploads at UDSM, MU and SUA correlates to the number of communities which archive their scholarly works to the repository. UDSM has 19 communities, MU has 13 and SUA has 9. However, despite the number of communities in these repositories, the institutions established this service between 2015 and 2016 and have advanced in using open access to promote scholarly communication. The upload of other repositories of SUZA, SAUT and MUHAS is fairly promising despite the earlier establishment of open access scholarly communication. This finding draws attention to the academic libraries trying to improve the repository and upgrade the collection.

Furthermore, Mwilongo (2018:7) and Mwinyimbegu (2019:9) argue that for academic libraries to maintain visibility and open access to scholarly communication, they should be innovative in deploying digital technologies and improve the quality of scholarly works in order to meet and satisfy their user needs. The institution repository has to be frequently updated with current resources, and its collection must be monitored and evaluated to identify strengths and weaknesses. One of the innovative open access initiatives is the integration of the repositories with other government agencies for visibility and one-stop access points.

The Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) has centralised the institutional repositories for easy and free access to scholarly works from one point. The platform is officially known as COSTECH Integrated Repositories (CIR). CIR is a digital service that combines the institutional repositories in Tanzania, preserves and freely disseminates scholarly works to the public. This initiative has considered the role of having a central point of access to scholarly works from different institutions and put forward the importance of preserving an institution’s legacy, and facilitate digital preservation and scholarly communication. All the Tanzanian desktop documentary repositories registered at OpenDOAR (2022) are integrated with COSTECH for its legacy and scholarly communication (COSTECH, 2022). On the other hand, the universities must play a pivotal role in ensuring that timely and right information is created, stored and freely accessed by its community, researchers, stakeholders and the public in general.

General roles of academic libraries in open access scholarly

communication

Open access scholarly communication is an increasingly significant component in the provision of academic publications and information resources. The development of institutional repositories is a response to open access initiatives. Academic libraries are considered as a platform or house of knowledge through which users interact with academic works. Open access scholarly communication is being developed throughout the world as a consequence of the availability of scholarly resources in electronic formats and in response to open access policies and mandates. Amongst other roles, academic libraries are crucial in the management of the institutional repository. In performing the managerial functions, the academic libraries have to perform the following general functions (Mnzava & Chirwa, 2018:10; Mwilongo, 2018:9; Muneja & Ndenje-Sichalwe, 2019:11; Mwinyimbegu, 2019:9; Nunda & Elia, 2019:11; Kayungi, Ndenje-Sichalwe & Manda, 2021:9):

Conclusion

Scholarly communication and the open access movement have come a long way in recent years; library websites, digital libraries and institutional repositories play a vital role in higher learning and research institutions in today’s information era. They have to promote sharing of scholarly information, widening interaction of open access platforms, enhancing recognition of one’s academic capability and the impact of the preserved knowledge. This may lead to a central point of access to scholarly works from different institutions and emphasise the importance of preserving an institution’s legacy, facilitating digital preservation and scholarly communication. Thus, call attention to academic libraries to improve the repository and upgrade the collection access to quality scholarly works and ensure implementation of open access institutional repositories to meet and satisfy the needs of the academic community and the public.

Recommendations

Based on the study objectives and survey of the purposely selected open access repositories in Tanzanian universities, the study provides the following recommendations to open access repository managers, academic libraries, information professionals and other stakeholders who are involved in the planning, implementation and management of the open access repository:

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A Case Study from Sri Lanka

Thilini P. Rupasinghe1

University of Kelaniya

Abstract

A key challenge faced by educators during the recent emergency shift to online teaching due to the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak was the lack of student-lecturer interaction, especially in the asynchronous mode. Several studies have revealed that asynchronous teaching lacks student engagement and active learning, the principal components of lifelong and meaningful undergraduate education. In the current study, the concept of “virtual office hours” has successfully been utilised to overcome this challenge. Herein, major theory components were introduced to students using short, pre-recorded lecture videos through a learning management system (asynchronous mode). Then, the lecturer conducted a real-time online session called “virtual office hour”, which was designed to answer the questions of students. This was solely a student-driven session and was structured to be different from a typical tutorial session by putting the students in the driving seat of learning. Participation in this virtual session was entirely voluntary, and if students had unclear theory parts, they were encouraged to join and get them clarified. Feedback on virtual office hour sessions was collected from students using questionnaires, resulting in higher student satisfaction. Moreover, the impact of this approach towards the learning process was statistically analysed by investigating the correlation between final exam scores and attendance of virtual office hours. A weak positive correlation (0.3) was observed between final exam marks and participation in this voluntary virtual session. According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that “virtual office hour” sessions are important in improving the quality of virtual teaching because it increases students’ trust

Thilini P. Rupasinghe, Faculty of Computing and Technology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka; thilinir@kln.ac.lk

in the teacher’s care of their learning, which is crucial in the current online

teaching paradigm. Keywords: online teaching, COVID-19, student-lecturer interaction, asynchronous mode, virtual office hours.

Introduction

One of the key challenges faced by educators in recent years is the emergency and unplanned shift to online teaching in the year 2020 as a consequence of school closures due to the unexpected COVID-19 outbreak. Approximately

1.4 billion students were restricted to their households. At the same time, the entire global education system underwent a rapid paradigm shift from the traditional face-to-face approach to online teaching in which delivering content and evaluating students’ understanding is solely done using technology (Jeffery & Bauer, 2020).

During this period, education was mainly provided in two modes: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous mode, in which classes are conducted in real-time through a platform such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams, that allows students to interact with the instructor in real-time. In this mode, knowledge transfer occurs in real-time at the instructor’s pace, while the sense-making part happens alone at an individual level. In comparison, in asynchronous mode, no real-time interaction takes place between the student and the instructor. The content is usually transferred using pre-recorded videos and uploaded to a learning management system (LMS). Students access learning materials through the LMS at their pace; hence, knowledge transfer and sense-making happen alone at an individual level (Mingzi, Xin & Liang, 2021). Out of these two modes, the asynchronous mode was more popular amongst students than the synchronous mode, especially in developing countries such as Sri Lanka (Yatigammana & Wijayarathna, 2021). This can mainly be attributed to anytime accessibility in the asynchronous mode, where students do not have to join in real-time (Rupasinghe, 2021). They can watch the recorded videos anytime during the day at their own pace in asynchronous mode. Most students tend to watch video lectures at night when mobile data costs are significantly low (Yatigammana & Wijayarathna, 2021; Department of Education, 2021).

Additionally, issues related to network connectivity and lack of device availability are minimised in asynchronous mode learning, as students can go through learning materials anytime they want. Also, asynchronous mode provides the opportunity for the students to go through recorded lectures over and over until they understand the content. Because of the abovementioned reasons, asynchronous mode teaching and learning are more popular in the higher education sector, especially in countries with low income, as it could be implemented with minimum infrastructure and Internet connection requirements (Kayalar, 2021; Yatigammana & Wijayarathna, 2021).

However, a key drawback of asynchronous mode teaching is the lack of student-instructor interaction, which is a key component in a successful learning process. Since there is minimal interaction between the learner and the instructor, it is a huge challenge for the instructor to gain insight into the level of students’ understanding of the content. In comparison, synchronous mode provides the opportunity for the instructor to gain a solid understanding of students’ knowledge in real-time through immediate feedback, where the instructor can revisit the concepts based on students’ responses providing extra support for the students to understand the content better. In asynchronous mode, different activities such as forum discussions and quizzes can successfully be utilised to gain an understanding of students’ knowledge. However, this is much more challenging than the synchronous mode of teaching and requires significant time and training.

Virtual office hours sessions can be named as an approach that can be utilised to overcome this challenge. The purpose of virtual office hours sessions is to provide an opportunity for the learner to interact with the instructor in real-time (Pakala, Bairaktarova & Schauer, 2019). This is an extension of the concept of office hours sessions in a conventional face-toface classroom which provides an opportunity for students to seek help class time outside of normal hours. A number of studies in the literature have shown that participation in office hour sessions has a positive correlation with higher academic achievement and students’ satisfaction in the traditional face-to-face model (Swanson, 2016; Meyers, 2003; Li & Pitts, 2009; Jeremy et al., 2022). Although the concept of virtual office hours sessions is fairly new, they are a proven effective method of communication for all course types as they can be implemented in in-person lectures, hybrid courses, or online courses (Pakala et al, 2019; Li & Pitts, 2009; Jeremy et al., 2022).

Hence, in this study, virtual office hours sessions have been utilised as a method to enhance student-instructor interactions in asynchronous mode learning by bridging the gap and providing opportunities for the students to interact with the instructor in real-time. Herein, students’ perception of the use of virtual office hours sessions and its’ impact on the learning process have been studied, and this study focuses on the following research questions (RQs): RQ 1: What are students’ perceptions of virtual office hours sessions? RQ 2: What are students’ expectations in virtual office hours sessions? RQ 3: What is the impact of virtual office hours sessions on students’ learning process and understanding of the challenges associated with real-time virtual office hours sessions in asynchronous mode?

Methodology

Participants

This study was conducted at a state university in Sri Lanka for first-year students following the Bachelor of Engineering Technology degree programme. This course, “Chemistry for Technology”, was delivered online due to the closure of the university as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the approximate class size was 88.

Procedure

The course “Chemistry for Technology” was delivered via Moodle, the learning management system (LMS), in asynchronous mode using the following model.

Herein, major theory components were introduced to students using short lecture videos (< 20 minutes) developed through the concept of micro-learning, followed by a worksheet related to the theoretical component covered in the video. Questions in this worksheet were mainly at the lower end of Bloom’s Taxonomy, such as “remembering” and “understanding”, as the sole purpose here was to check whether students have grasped the basic concept. Students were given two to three days to complete the worksheet and upload it to the LMS. Further, the forum question feature available in the LMS platform was successfully utilised to create a dynamic environment by enhancing students’ engagement and participation. Deliberately developed questions covering common misconceptions were posted as forum questions, and the students were given marks for answering these questions. The lecturer was actively involved in the process by providing feedback on their answers. After the submission of the worksheet, the lecturer conducted a real-time online session called “virtual office hours” sessions, which was designed to answer the questions of students. Finally, students were given a challenge question which required higher-order thinking, which allowed the instructor to gain an insight into the level of students’ understanding.

The key feature of these virtual office hours sessions was that students were asked to develop questions related to the theory component, worksheet and forum questions. This was solely a student-driven session and was structured to be different from a typical tutorial session by putting the students in the driving seat of learning, thus making it more active learning. Participation in these virtual sessions was entirely voluntary, and if students had unclear theory parts, they were encouraged to join and obtain clarification on them.

The impact of participation in virtual office hours sessions on students’ learning process was studied by statistical analysis (correlation analysis) of the relationship between the final examination grade and students’ attendance in this voluntary session. Furthermore, students’ perception of the virtual office hours sessions was evaluated using a questionnaire of ten items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ and two open-ended questions. The respondent rate was 25% of the total population, and the collected data were summarised and analysed using Microsoft Excel.

Results and discussion

Of the students who responded, 22% were females, while 78% were males in the age group 21 to 23.

What are students’ perceptions of virtual office hours sessions? (RQ 1)

Attitudinal questions were given in the survey to check student perception of virtual office hours sessions, and the responses to the questionnaire are summarised in Table 4.1.

According to Table 4.1, most students have indicated a positive impact of virtual office hour sessions in their learning process (Questions 1 to 3). In order to gain further insight into the perception of students, responses

Table 4.1: Summary of questions on understanding students’ perception (RQ 1):

Table 4.2: Summary of questions on understanding the reasons for attending virtual office hour sessions voluntarily:

indicated as ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ were combined and categorised as ‘positive responses’, while ‘neutral’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ were combined and categorised as ‘negative’ responses (Figure 4.2). As seen in Figure 4.2, the majority of the students have identified virtual office hours sessions as a satisfactory experience in their learning process, with positive responses of 93%, 100% and 93% for Questions 1 to 3. Moreover, 86% of respondents have suggested incorporating virtual office hours sessions in future classes and other subjects.

What are students’ expectations in virtual office hours sessions? (RQ 2)

Although virtual office hours sessions were not mandatory, students regularly attended virtual office hours sessions. However, this varied according to the topic covered in a given week, where there was high participation when a difficult topic was taught compared to a simple one. Table 4.2 summarises the responses to questions about potential reasons for attending office hours.

According to Table 4.2, the majority of the students have indicated that they attended virtual office hours sessions to have their questions answered (93% positive responses for Question 7), which further endorses the positive impact of virtual office hours sessions in the learning process. Generally, in an asynchronous class, student engagement is considerably low, and students

Table 4.3: Students’ responses to open-ended questions on the reasons for attending virtual office hour sessions and the challenges they had to face:

are in a passive mode where knowledge transfer solely happens through video lectures without interacting with the instructor. However, through the synchronous approach, students are deliberately put in the driving seat of learning through active engagement, where they have to come to virtual office hours sessions with their own questions rather than just passively listening to the instructor.

What is the impact of virtual office hours sessions on students’ learning process and understanding the challenges associated with real-time virtual office hours

sessions in asynchronous mode? (RQ 3)

In order to gain further insight into this observation, an open-ended question had also been included in the questionnaire, and the responses to this question are summarised in Table 4.3. Students indicated that they attended virtual office hours sessions to understand unclear parts of the video lecture, to clarify their questions and to improve their knowledge. From Questions 6 to 8 and responses to open-ended questions, it can be concluded that students have identified virtual office hours sessions as a way of clarifying unclear theory components from the recorded video lectures. Hence, it can be recommended to include virtual office hours sessions in asynchronous mode modules to provide a high-quality and meaningful education.

Also, another open-ended question was included in the questionnaire to understand the challenges associated with this type of real-time virtual office hour session. The majority of the students have indicated Internet connectivity issues and data affordability as the main challenges.

Finally, the impact of the virtual office hour sessions on the performance of students was studied by investigating a correlation between the attendance of virtual office hours sessions and final examination marks. According to the analysis, a weak positive correlation of 0.3 was observed between the attendance in this voluntary office hour session and the final examination performance.

Recommendations for instructors

After analysing the results, it is clear that incorporating a synchronous component (virtual office hours session) in an asynchronous module has multiple benefits. Importantly, this provides a solution for one of the prevalent issues in asynchronous mode teaching; lack of student-instructor interaction. A robust and effective interaction between students and instructors can be promoted through virtual office hours sessions. Additionally, synchronous virtual office hours sessions facilitate student engagement and peer interactions in an asynchronous module. Notably, as described in the results section, this has also exhibited a positive impact on students’ performances. Therefore, it can be recommended to include a synchronous component such as virtual office hours sessions in modules delivered in asynchronous mode. This can be a real-time session every two to three weeks, and the instructor should structure this session in a way that promotes active engagement and has to be different from a traditional tutorial or discussion session. Students should be advised to bring their own questions related to the lecture video and worksheet or tutorials. A key feature of a virtual office hours session is that the instructor is a facilitator without recreating a traditional classroom setting. The concept of inquiry can be included in the virtual office hours sessions by providing guidance to students to master theoretical components without directly providing instruction. This approach would be highly beneficial for instructors from developing countries where most of the modules are delivered in asynchronous mode owing to issues related to Internet availability, availability of devices, network issues and the high cost associated with Internet connections.

Limitations

This study is limited to one institution with data from one academic year (2020/2021) in a Bachelor of Engineering Technology (BET) degree programme. The study was conducted at a university in Sri Lanka during the university closure period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, students’ perceptions of virtual office hours sessions may be influenced by context-specific social, economic and mental issues during the panemic. Despite these limitations, our study is the first to provide insight into the impact of virtual office hours sessions on students’ academic performance and investigate students’ perception of virtual office hours sessions in the Sri Lankan context where the utilisation of technology for education is limited. The findings of the study provide significant insight to academics on enhancing student-instructor interaction in an asynchronous teaching environment using virtual office hours sessions.

Conclusion

The current study focuses on exploring the possibility of utilising a new concept called virtual office hours sessions in asynchronous mode teaching. Virtual office hours sessions are a real-time, voluntary, student-driven session promoting student-instructor interaction in asynchronous teaching. Herein, the perception of students of virtual office hours sessions and the impact on the learning process has been investigated. A higher degree of student satisfaction was observed when students clearly indicated that this session helped them improve their subject knowledge and clarify unclear theory components in the recorded lectures. Further, respondents suggested incorporating virtual office hours sessions in future classes and other subjects. Moreover, a weak positive correlation of 0.3 was observed between the attendance in this voluntary office hours session and the final examination performance, which further endorses the positive impact of virtual office hours sessions for a successful learning process.

Generally, student engagement is considerably low, and students are in a passive mode in asynchronous-mode teaching, where knowledge transfer solely happens through video lectures without any interaction with the instructor. However, through the approach of virtual office hours sessions (including a few synchronous sessions), students have the opportunity to actively interact with their instructor. Further, proposed virtual office hours sessions are structured in a way where students have to come to the sessions with their own questions or unclear parts, rather than just passively listening to the instructor or following the instructions given by the lecturer. This indirectly puts students in the driving seat of learning as they have to go through lecture materials and attempt to undertake tutorials/worksheets before virtual office hours sessions. Additionally, incorporating virtual office hours sessions every two or three weeks in an asynchronous mode module would ensure that all the students are in accordance in terms of course progression. This would also provide students with a sense of their learning progress. Hence, according to the results of the current study, it is highly recommended to include virtual office hours sessions in asynchronous mode modules to provide high-quality and meaningful education in the virtual environment.

References

Department of Education. (2021). Circular and guidelines on distance learning for school education in Sri Lanka: Circular No. 15:2021. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Department of Education.

Jeffery KA & Bauer CF. (2020). Students’ responses to emergency remote online teaching reveal critical factors for all teaching. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(9):2472–2485. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00736

Kayalar MT. (2021). Perspectives of university students on the efficiency of synchronous and asynchronous learning. Journal of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, 2021:1.

Li L & Pitts JP. (2009). Does it really matter? Using virtual office hours to enhance student-faculty interaction. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2):175 –186.

Meyers D. (2003). The impact of virtual office hours on in-class participation. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association’s annual meeting, Chicago, Illinois, April 21-25.

Mingzi Z, Xin W & Liang Z. (2021). Integrated media platform-based virtual office hours implementation for online teaching in post-COVID-19 Pandemic era. KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems, 15(8):2732–2748. https://doi. org/10.3837/tiis.2021.08.002

Pakala K, Bairaktarova D & Schauer S. (2019). Happy Hours are a Godsend. 2019 American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) Annual Conference & Exposition, Tampa, Florida, June 15. https://doi.org/10.18260/1-2--32885

Rupasinghe TP. (2021). Development of a model to enhance students’ engagement in asynchronous online lectures. 21st Conference on Postgraduate Research International Postgraduate Research Conference (IPRC 2021), Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. 49.

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A Unique Information Gap for University Libraries to Embrace

Ruth Nsibirano1

Makerere University

Kisa Agatha Nsibirano2

Ministry of Defence

Abstract

A university library is a fountain of information to all its traditional users: students and faculty, plus affiliated users and researchers who are granted user rights for stipulated periods on payment of a user fee. In the face of new realities, it is important to appreciate that university libraries, compared to public or community libraries, are conveniently located, bigger, open for longer hours, better funded and offer more and better services. Unfortunately, they have remained conservative to the colonial exclusive setup instead of accommodating the need to transform and meet local needs. If knowledge is indeed to be for everybody, then university libraries should reconnect and embrace change to benefit more users.

Focusing on agriculture, which is the backbone of many economies, this paper seeks to answer three questions: What information needs do urban vegetable farmers have? What information sources are available and used? And whether university libraries are priority information sources for urban vegetable farmers in Kampala. A qualitative study was conducted, using thirty in-depth interviews and six focus group discussions. Data were collected and later thematically analysed. Findings revealed that urban vegetable farmers needed information on sources of clean seeds, inputs and markets. Libraries seemed unwelcoming to and passively excluded “non-educated” community members. Thus, farmer teams and not university libraries were the most efficient and used sources of information for urban farmers. We recommend that university libraries should transform from an only elitist campus discourse to integrate service to the community through library outreaches, open days, and capacity-building to benefit urban farmer groups. This chapter further recommends that different community categories within the university neighbourhood deserve personalised information packages to propel the country’s efforts to attain middle-income status, modernise agriculture, the backbone of its economy, and contribute to attaining the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2, 11 and 12.

Keywords: urban farming, vegetable and mushroom growing, agricultural information sources, Kampala urban farmers, academic libraries and unique user communities, library outreach

Introduction

Globally, urban farming is on the increase in many cities (Yan, Liu, Liu & Zhang, 2022) and in Uganda (David et al., 2010; Hemerijckx et al., 2023). A number of factors explain the growth of this livelihood strategy. Urban farming makes huge contributions, especially lifting standards of living and promoting food security amongst the urban poor (FAO, 1996; Sangwan & Tasciotti, 2023). Thus, urban farmers require support as all farmers do. Unfortunately, urban farmers are excluded when such support is offered, including the provision of information and inputs. Yet all farmers, regardless of the geographical location, should be supported to meet their information needs so that they are able to enhance their farming enterprises. Government or private support services extended to farmers unintentionally exclude urban vegetable and mushroom farmers. Public libraries would have played this role since they were established to freely provide information resources and services to interested users (Abdurrahman, 2023). Uganda has over 22 public libraries mandated to serve cities and towns by providing resources and services to equally meet the needs of individuals and groups.

Furthermore, public libraries can be effective in bridging the gap between information providers and trainers and information users such as farmers (EIFL, 2023). Unfortunately, the current reality in Uganda is that partly due to limited space for personal reading in homes and in some schools, access to and use of public libraries has been taken over and is now dominated by school children (The Monitor, 2021). Over time, other potential public library users have been edged out. The displacement of other users from public libraries justifies a need to rethink how transformation in academic libraries can happen to allow such libraries to embrace the new role of an “intellectual commons” (Fagbola, Uzoigwe & Ajegbomogun, 2011).

On 13 July 2018, the Makerere University Library joined the rest of the world to celebrate World Library Day. The theme of the day in Makerere University Library celebrations was “Remodelled Library Services: Informed Societies”. The theme aligned with the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) annual theme: “Transforming Libraries, Transforming Societies: Reaching Out to the Hard to Reach”. The two themes motivated the reflection on the role of the university in general through its vision statement: “… a thought leader of knowledge generation for societal transformation and development” (Makerere University, 2020), but also libraries in general and university libraries in particular in supporting efforts to transform the Ugandan society, from peasantry to a middle-income economy (Museveni, 2013).

If Makerere University and the university library can assume the role of effective players in social transformation and open alternative gates to include the otherwise excluded population through information provision, all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially 1, 2, 11 and 12, can be impacted. Undoubtedly, agriculture continues to be the backbone of many growing economies (Diao, 2010; Schoonraad, 2016; Stilwell, Bats & Lor, 2016). It is also true that agriculture is a livelihood option for many (Lwoga, Ngulube & Stilwell, 2010). Through agriculture, populations find employment to earn a living (World Bank, 2017), and it is a source of food supply for the ever-increasing number of urban dwellers (Matuschke, 2009).

Although previously, the countryside was a key source of food supplies for urban dwellers (Matuschke, 2009), the increasing levels of rural-urban migration mean that more people abandon farming for better opportunities in towns (Da Silva, 2017). The effect of rural-urban migration has not only changed the urban-rural population balance to 54% in urban, but it has also created an ever-increasing demand for food supplies and has impacted food consumption patterns. Urban income increases make people demand processed foods, fruits and vegetables (Da Silva, 2017). Thus, urban agriculture comes in handy as a survival strategy (Byamugisha, Ikoja-Odongo & Nasinyama, 2010).

Yet, urban residents experience rapid changes that affect their ability to access food (Mackay, Tusabe & Mugagga, 2022). And with more people to feed in the urban areas and fewer producers in the countryside, there are fewer food supplies and, as such, escalating food prices. Amidst such realities, a new trend of urban farming is unavoidable. Urban dwellers have to find ways of coping with increasing food prices resulting from an imbalance between supply and demand. Due to the food imbalance, urban dwellers, particularly the under-privileged, are more likely to have a small garden in the backyard as a cheap alternative food source (Byamugisha et al., 2010; Garrett & Ruel, 2000; Siegner, Sowerwine & Acey, 2018). In the spirit of taking advantage of new opportunities, the increasing food market opportunities in towns are push factors fuelling urban farming. Urban farmers grow a variety of crops and practice numerous agricultural activities. About three years ago, Kampala had a total population of 1.86 million people; of these, about 40% were engaged in urban farming (UBOS, 2015). Owing to the fact that urban agriculture is practised on a limited land base, it has not been easy to establish actual percentages of those participating in this form of agriculture. Nonetheless, vegetable production is amongst the dominating practices (Sabiiti & Katongole, 2014; Sabiiti et al., 2014).

Successful agricultural practices require information so that farmers can be guided (Rao et al., 2019). A study conducted in 2010 on information needs and use amongst urban farmers documented the need to provide information to farmers within their respective groups of practice (Byamugisha, Ikoja-Odongo & Nasinyama, 2010; Byamugisha et al., 2008). This study emphasised that in order to ensure enhanced productivity, farms need information. Globally, libraries take the upper hand as sources of information (Onuoha & Awoniyi, 2011). It is also expected that libraries will always be an information hub and meet the information needs of the communities. Unfortunately, most (university) libraries provide information to only those directly registered with them, including students, academic staff and researchers. It is time for university libraries, such as the Makerere University Library, to extend these useful services to new categories of users, which is critical for social transformation.

Libraries cannot plan for and provide required information to new categories of users, such as urban farmers, if their information needs and information-seeking behaviours are not known. The majority of the urban farmers are men and women from the community who perhaps have never been to the university. It is not known for sure if academic libraries consider this category as patrons. It is also not explicitly known if urban farmers are interested in the information that the academic library provides. A number of possible questions can be posed: “Will urban farmers even know that university libraries exist for the sole purpose of meeting information needs?” “Do urban farmers have access to rich university library resources?” “Are university libraries aware or even prepared with the kind of information to serve the information needs of this category of the community?” If the answer to all the posed questions is a “no”, then it is certainly right for a study to seek to establish the following:

The key thesis for this chapter is that university libraries have a missed opportunity to serve a unique user group of urban farmers simply because urban farmers and the academic library possibly do not know about each other. Thus, a study was conducted amongst urban farmers, specifically those engaged in vegetable and mushroom growing to answer the questions above to explore information needs and information sources used and assess if libraries are priority sources of information for urban vegetable and mushroom farmers in Kampala.

Justification for such a study was formed out of a conviction that identifying information needs and the sources people use gives the information provider an indication of the content or potential information that users need. This will go a long way to facilitate university libraries to approach the communities that increasingly have unique information needs that should not be ignored. This new trend is even more urgent now that elite communities are accessing electronic resources more than physical ones. Libraries approaching this otherwise new category will guarantee their essential role, justifying continued existence and visibility in addressing an information gap. This is in sync with the feminist theory and the politics of inclusion (Fisher, 1990), a theoretical perspective that guides the discussions.

Methods and tools

This qualitative study was conducted in the Rubaga division, Kampala district. A sample of thirty vegetable and mushroom growers was purposively selected. To be included in the study as an in-depth interviewee, one had to be involved in urban farming and growing vegetables or mushrooms. The in-depth interviews with vegetable farmers were held in their homes where the gardening too place. This was also conducted to enable observations to be made. In-depth interviews were conducted in Luganda, the widely understood and spoken local language in the area, using an interview guide. In addition, six focus group discussions were made, with an average of eight farmers selected from different associations that bring vegetable farms together. Only association members who had not participated in the in-depth interviews were selected to triangulate and solicit qualitative data regarding the role farmer associations play. Focus group discussion guides were used to collect data during the focus group discussions. Permission was requested from participants, so all interviews were recorded and later transcribed verbatim by two independent researchers. The transcripts were compared for completeness before coding and analysis was undertaken using thematic analysis. Data collection was performed from September to November 2016.

The Role of Libraries in Providing Information Access Towards the Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4)

Sarah A. Gbenu1

Lagos State University

Pauline Ruguru Njagi2

Kenyatta University

Adebola O. Adegoroye3

Lagos State University

Introduction

Offline Internet is that specially designed computer system that stores information in very large quantities for learning in low-resource regions and/or emergencies, either by direct retrieval of information from a storage device, a Wi-Fi-enabled seeder sharing its resources with leech-computers or a device that periodically updates its local information contents whenever it goes online. We are in the age of “device store width” and no longer Internet bandwidth; thus, the amount of relevant information a non-human device can store offline is more important than Internet speed which is unavailable in most parts of the Global South and emergencies.

According to Sprague et al., (2014), the offline population faces barriers to Internet adoption spanning four categories: incentives, low incomes and affordability, user capability and infrastructure. For incentives, barriers in this category include a lack of awareness of the Internet or use cases that create value for the offline user, a lack of relevant (local or localised) content and services, and a lack of cultural or social acceptance. The root causes of these consumer barriers include the high costs that content and service providers face in developing and localising relevant content and services and their associated business model constraints, low awareness or interest from certain audiences, limited Internet freedom and information security (Sprague et al., 2014).

The second barrier in the category is low income and affordability. In this area, the predominant barrier is the low income of individuals in the offline population. This barrier is exacerbated by the high costs associated with providing access to the Internet for disproportionately rural populations. The low incomes reflect the poor economic circumstances of large segments of the offline population, often including unemployment and the need for economic development, employment, and income growth opportunities in their regions. At the same time, there is often a lack of adjacent infrastructure (such as roads and electricity), thereby increasing the costs faced by network operators in extending coverage. Several other factors can contribute to high service costs for device manufacturers and network operators, including taxes and fees and, in the case of some countries, an unfavourable market structure (Sprague et al., 2014).

The third barrier in the category is user capability. This category includes barriers such as a lack of digital literacy: unfamiliarity with or discomfort in using digital technologies to access and use information, and a lack of language literacy: the inability to read and write. The root cause of such literacy barriers is often an under-resourced education system (Sprague et al., 2014).

Infrastructure is the fourth barrier in the category. Barriers in this area include a lack of mobile Internet coverage or network access in addition to a lack of adjacent infrastructure such as grid electricity. The root causes of these consumer barriers include limited access to international bandwidth; an underdeveloped national core network, backhaul, and access infrastructure; limited spectrum availability; a national information and communications technology (ICT) strategy that does not effectively address the issue of broadband access; and under-resourced infrastructure development (Sprague et al., 2014).

Ibáñez (2020) opines that remote education aims to move the in-person courses to a remote, virtual, distance, or online classroom. This method prioritises education as an emergency and looks out for the wellbeing of the students.

Low resource environments simply refer to places, especially in the Global South, which are beleaguered by large-scale poverty and lack of financial resources amongst the majority of the citizens. As a result of the overwhelming poverty in the region, even the educational system is underfunded and under-resourced, from a lack of adequate teachers to instructional materials and school infrastructure to poorly equipped laboratories and scanty libraries.

Emergencies refer to unforeseen situations such as armed conflict or natural disasters. Emergencies cause major disruption of education systems. Schools and colleges are often damaged during armed conflict or used for temporary accommodation of people rendered homeless or displaced by war or disasters such as earthquakes, pandemics, floods or hurricanes, and students, teachers and their families may seek safety in other countries as refugees. In situations of chronic conflict, the quality of schooling may deteriorate if governments are unable to distribute teacher salaries due to security problems and/or lack of funds (Sinclair, 2001). The common feature with all emergencies is the disruption of formal schooling; thus, governments and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have to provide alternate means of learning remotely.

Offline Internet thus offers the panacea to the challenge of cost-efficient and cost-effective remote learning that requires no Internet data cost or Internet connection and works with existing digital devices in low-resource environments and emergencies.

Statement of problem

There are 7.8 billion people in the world, while 3.6 billion people worldwide still lack online access (E ndless OS Foundation, 2022). More so, the Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) analysis has found that USD 428 billion in additional funding is needed over the next ten years to connect everyone to quality broadband by 2030, but:

The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all; thus, the issue of the digital divide is an unfortunate reality that contravenes the ideals of this humanist goal. In addition, the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic exacerbated the global digital divide leading to disruption of the schooling of over 1.6 billion students with more than 192 country-wide closures resulting in interrupted learning, unequal access to digital learning portals and a rise in dropout rates.

Offline Internet thus offers the panacea to the challenge of cost-efficient and cost-effective remote learning that requires no Internet data cost, no Internet connection, and works with existing digital devices. It is the intent of the researcher to view this sensitive technology and taxonomise the emerging field of offline internet.

Purpose of study

The purpose of this study is to X-ray offline Internet for digital remote learning in low-resource environments and emergencies. Specifically, the chapter seeks to:

The taxonomy of offline internet

Completely offline systems or ‘sneakernet’ are those specially designed computer systems that store information in very large quantities for learning in low-resource regions and/or emergencies by directly retrieving information from a storage device, for example, universal serial bus (USB) sticks, subscriber identity module (SIM) cards, secure digital (SD) cards, mobile applications (apps), mobile devices or even computer systems. These are mostly used for personalised digital remote learning.

Hybridised offline systems are those specially-designed computer systems that store information in very large quantities for learning in low-resource regions and/or emergencies by direct retrieval of information from a device or mobile app that periodically updates its local information contents whenever it goes online, or it goes online for user authentication purposes. This category is also used for personalised digital remote learning.

The offline server, seeder networks or nano servers refer to those specially designed computer systems that store information in very large quantities for learning in low-resource regions and/or emergencies by direct broadcasting or seeding of information from a storage device or a Wi-Fienabled seeder sharing its resources with leech-computers or smartphones or devices. These are mostly used in schools, communities, refugee camps and correctional facilities to enable collaborative learning while still gathering data on individual users’ learning activities.

Completely offline systems

development science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning outcomes (African Union, 2020)

Hybridised offline systems

Offline servers

Problems of offline internet

Conclusion

This chapter has shown offline Internet as the panacea to the challenge of cost-efficient and cost-effective remote learning that requires no Internet data cost, no Internet connection, and works with existing digital devices in low-resource environments and emergencies. The chapter also examined the correlation of the digital divide, defined offline internet, and taxonomised offline internet, stated some exemplars of the sub-categories of offline internet, stated the problems of offline Internet and recommended solutions to the problems faced by offline Internet users. Recommendations are to ensure the optimal use of offline Internet for the achievement of sustainable development goal four which is inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all, especially in low-resource environments and emergencies.

Recommendations

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