Partnership Between Universities in Japan and South Africa

Partnership Between Universities in Japan and South Africa T. Maki, T.S. Mashau & C.C. Wolhuter (Eds) Partnership Between Universities in Japan and South Africa Published by UJ Press University of Johannesburg Library Auckland Park Kingsway Campus PO Box 524 Auckland Park 2006 https://ujpress.uj.ac.za/ Compilation © T. Maki, T.S. Mashau & C.C. Wolhuter 2024 Chapters © Author(s) 2024 Published Edition © T. Maki, T.S. Mashau & C.C. Wolhuter 2024 First published 2024 https://doi.org/10.36615/ 9781776489350 978-1-7764893-4-3 (Paperback) 978-1-7764893-5-0 (PDF) 978-1-7764893-6-7 (EPUB) 978-1-7764893-7-4 (XML) This publication had been submitted to a rigorous double-blind peer-review process prior to publication and all recommendations by the reviewers were considered and implemented before publication. Language Editor: Michelle Meyer Cover design: Hester Roets, UJ Graphic Design Studio Typeset in 9.5/13pt Merriweather Light

<_No_paragraph_style_>Contents Chapter 1: International Partnerships Between Universities: A Literature Survey ............................................... 1 C.C. Wolhuter Chapter 2: Japan and South Africa: A Political, Economic, Social, Technological and Legal Evaluation .......................... 19 Takayoshi Maki, C.C. Wolhuter Chapter 3: Scope of Partnerships Between Universities in Japan and South Africa: The South African Perspective ......................................................................................... 45 C.C. Wolhuter, T.S. Mashau, Takayoshi Maki Chapter 4: The Impact of Japanese Universities in an African Context ................................................................................. 65 Asami Shimoda Chapter 5: Twenty Years of the Master’s Programme Initiative Among Hiroshima University, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the University of Zambia for Integration of Theory and Practice ................................................................................................ 93 Takuya Baba, Natsuko Furukawa Chapter 6: A Glimpse into a Master’s Degree and an Internship Programme of African Business Education Initiative for Youth: A Case Study of International Partnership between Japan and Africa ..................................... 121 Cedric Mpaso Chapter 7: Reflection on Graduate Research Training at Japanese National Universities ................................................... 137 Foster Gondwe Chapter 8: Conducting Webinars on Professional Development for Teacher Educators: Connecting the University of Malawi and the University of Zambia with Universities in Southeast Asian Countries .................... 153 May Thu Kyaw Chapter 9: Overview of a Platform for International Collaborative Research: Schemes of Japan (MEXT and JSPS) and South Africa (DHET and NRF) ................................. 177 Masayasu Sakaguchi Chapter 10: An International Collaborative Research Experience between Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia and Hiroshima University, Japan ............................................... 205 Kyoko Taniguchi Chapter 11: International Collaborative Research: Voices of Global South Researchers ........................................... 221 Hannah Edjah, Christopher Kwaah Chapter 12: Comparative and International Education as Fields of Scholarship in South Africa and Japan and the Scope for Collaboration Between the Two Countries .......... 249 Shoko Yamada, CC Wolhuter

Chapter 1 International Partnerships Between Universities: A Literature Survey C.C. Wolhuter

Comparative and International Education Professor North-West University South Africa Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.za 1.1 Introduction Cross-border partnerships are increasingly important for higher education in the twenty-first century (Oleksiyenko & Yang 2015, Sanders & Wong 2021:214). While virtually all universities in the world, in their pursuit of internationalisation, strive to enter into partnerships with universities abroad, there is no synthesis of literature on the many case studies on such partnerships or the various models of international partnership to guide such activities. The purpose of this chapter is to fill this lacuna and to serve as a frame for the chapters and discussions in the rest of the volume. The chapter commences with a survey of the contextual background: the essential international dimension of universities, the enhanced imperative for internationalisation in the contemporary era in history, and how international partnerships between universities are put into service of this need. The research method is then explained, followed by the rationales for forging international partnerships between universities. Steps and decisions in forging such partnerships are then outlined. Subsequently, modes or models of partnerships are surveyed. In the final sections, the benefits and challenges of forging international partnerships are highlighted, and lessons learned are enumerated. From this, suggestions for the path forward, regarding such partnerships in general, and between Japanese and South African universities in particular, are made. 1.2 Contextual Background: The International Dimension of Universities and the Enhanced Imperative for Internationalisation in the Contemporary World From the earliest beginnings of the university as an institution, an international dimension has been noticeable. The medieval university in Europe is widely regarded in the literature as the prototype of the modern university, with the granting of a charter to the University of Paris by the Pope in 1080 taken as year one of university history (see Boyd & King 1975). Duggan (1916:100) enumerates that one of the five key features of the medieval university which distinguished it from the two other education institutions in medieval Europe, namely the Cathedral Schools and the Monastic Schools, was that the university attracted students from all over Europe, whereas the Cathedral Schools and Monastic Schools received all their students from their immediate hinterlands only. In parts of the world beyond Europe (even in North America), the university commenced as an importation, not autochthonously. Hence, the first batch of professoriate were always expatriates (in practice in the new world, much more so in the Global South, this dominance of expatriate faculty continued long after the founding of the universities in those regions). In the current age of globalisation, the pursuit of internationalisation by universities has not only been rendered easier (due to factors like enhanced technology), but the rationales for internationalisation are ever stronger—and manifold. Knight’s (1996) taxonomy specifies political, economic, academic and cultural rationales for the internationalisation of higher education. Welch, Yang & Wolhuter (2004) add to these scientific and scholarly rationales. Buckner (2019) shows how these rationales, or at least the hierarchy of rationales, are context-contingent. The author wishes to highlight three perspectives on the rationales behind the internationalisation of universities, ranging from self-centred to altruistic. These perspectives can be identified in various national contexts. The first is the merciless international competition brought about by the context of the contemporary globalised world. Thomas Friedman (2009) has coined the term ‘flat world’ to denote a world wherein whatever advantage geography (location, climate, mineral deposits, freshwater resources, biota and the like) has bestowed on a country has been wiped out by the technological advances of the twenty-first century. Henceforth, there will be a more equal playing field in which the competitive advantage of nations will be determined by factors such as policy or political environment, moral fibre or social capital, and—very importantly—the quality and development of human resources, a force that has also impacted the university sector (see Morel 2023; Wildavksy 2010). The second perspective is Joseph Nye’s concept of ‘soft power’. In contrast to ‘hard power’, referring to military and trade relations between nations, soft power refers to the use of an international actor’s values, cultures and institutions as primary currency to attract, repel or influence players on the international stage (see Leon 2013:229). Education, specifically the export of education, is then one instrument of soft power (see Zapp & Dahmen 2017). The third perspective comes from the field of Comparative and International Education, in which the authors are engaged. Leading scholars in this field have long contended that one raison d’être of teaching and researching the field (and of international education in general) is to contribute to communication between diverse people, and to international understanding and peace (see Arnove 2003; Jones 1981:24). One increasingly employed mode of higher education internationalisation is forging partnerships between universities of different national jurisdictions (Tekleselassie & Ford 2019). 1.3 Impetus and Rationales for Forging Partnerships Between Universities The motives and rationales for forging international partnerships between universities are manifold. Even universities within the contextual similarities of one national jurisdiction can differ much in their motivations for seeking and entering into international partnerships, as Montgomery’s (2016) research on universities in China reveals. As was stated earlier, Jane Knight (1996) enumerates political, economic, academic and cultural rationales for the internationalisation of higher education. In an age where universities frantically race to secure a place in the many (and high stakes) international rankings of universities, it seems as if academic reasons constitute a prime motivator for internationalisation in general, and for forging partnerships in particular. Even in the case of mission-driven universities, academic reasons seem to override cultural, religious or any other particular mission which a university has set for itself, as Reid (2019), for example, reports in his research on how Christian universities enter into partnerships with non-Christian universities. In the globalised, competitive contemporary world, one new phenomenon has given even further impetus to universities entering into partnerships with universities abroad. This new development is the global university ranking industry, while non-existent one generation ago, has taken the university sector by storm. These ranking systems typically include a factor of internationalisation in their indices. In the QS World University Ranking formula, for example, 5% of the total score is allocated to international staff and students (QS World University Rankings 2021). In current times of increased attention to the student corps constituency in higher education, attention should also be paid to the rationales and benefits of international partnership from the side of students. Chouhan, Handsley, Herriot & McGowan (2020) have investigated an international partnership between a British and an American higher education institution and found that field trips and student exchange have the potential to enhance the self-esteem and self-confidence of students, whilst delivering a co-created curriculum in a fun and engaging manner, drawing those at risk of marginalisation, academic failure or underachievement back into the mainstream. From the side of students, there is also the consideration that international experiences promote the development of a global cultural awareness and a better understanding of culture’s impact on decision-making (Lopez, Kemp & McKenzie 2019). As more companies grow their global operations, they increasingly attach value to students with a global competency (Eaton & Kleshinski 2013). What comes to mind here is the belief of one of the major shapers of the field of Comparative and International Education in the twentieth century, GZF Bereday (1920-1983), namely that the study of Comparative and International Education can promote mutual understanding between nations (Wojniak & Post 2020:66)—a claimed end of Comparative Education often repeated in the literature ever since (see Marshall 2019:17). Lacy, Merilus, Liu and Lacy (2022) found that, as measured by articles in Nature Index, the number of international scientific collaborations globally and the number of co-authored publications has tripled during the first two decades of the twenty-first century. Moreover, the impact of these co-authored publications was considerably higher. 1.4 Requirements, Pitfalls and Considerations in the Forging of International Partnerships Etling & McGirr (2016) enumerate the following as common elements of strong and productive partnerships between universities:

• Partnership contracts should specify shared goals and values (these do not necessarily have to be identical, but should be compatible and clearly defined).

• Contracts should express clear expectations (on the understanding they may change and be adjusted over time).

• There should be joint planning (meaning goals and the implementation plan should be collaboratively formulated, with the role of each party clearly spelt out).

• The perceived gains or rewards should outweigh any risks involved (“win-win” outcomes should be envisaged).

• Strong support from top management should be forthcoming.

• Partnership contracts should be flexible and adaptable (meaning there should be space for partners to broaden or narrow the scope of work over time, and to strengthen relationships).

• There should be equity and not asymmetrical power relations between partners.

Based on their empirical study, interviewing a number of university administrators and international organisations with experience in forging international partnerships between universities, Clark and Wilson (2017) found the following potential pitfalls of forging international partnerships between universities: lack of adequate funding, poor administrative support, lack of trust or familiarity with other institutions, onerous constraints placed on the collaboration participants (including the ironing-out of legal issues and technicalities) and difficulties with managing the ongoing collaboration (agreeing administration, streamlining technology), bureaucratic encumbrances and the long time it takes to set up an agreement, and the even longer time it takes to get the partnership going. Drawing from the business sector’s resource-based theory, Sanders and Wong (2021) explore international partner selection among higher education institutions in Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan. They identify eleven attributes that influence international partner selection for higher education institutions in these contexts. These considerations include: four technical capabilities (curriculum and pedagogy, academic staff, funding and language), four managerial capabilities (commitment and support, flexibility and adaptability, cultural understanding and fit), three intangible resources (reputation, location and opportunities for students and existing relations) (Sanders & Wong 2021). Evers and Lockhoff (2012) of the European Association for International Education have developed a four-step model to forge international partnerships between universities. These four steps are:

1. Finding a suitable partner: Potential partners’ history of international cooperation, vision, strategies, academic expertise and interest and strategic priorities should be studied thoroughly and critically. They should be compared with corresponding elements of the home university to ascertain that the ambitions of the institutions are realistic, complementary and compatible.

2. Developing a shared vision,

3. Getting institutional commitment from all sides and

4. Ensuring longevity.

1.5 Models of International Partnerships Between Universities The European Association for International Education lists the following components which can be included in international partnerships between universities (Sandström & Weimer 2013):

• Student, staff and support staff exchange

• Research projects

• Joint research and innovation

• Joint or double degree programmes (see LaFleur, 2018; Russell, Dolnicar & Ayoub 2007). This is a growing practice. For example, in 2019, 12,821 students were enrolled in two simultaneous undergraduate courses at Colombian universities (Pineda, Celis & Anzelin 2022).

• Curriculum development

• Knowledge exchange (including on servcies)

• Capacity building

• Virtual collaboration (which gained prominence during the Covid-19 pandemic, see Enkhtur, Li & Zhang 2023).

• Joint use of facilities or infrastructure

• Education to business

To these can be added:

• International field trips for students (see Chouhan et al. 2020)

• Joint research training of students (see Adriana, Mauricio, Doleres, Loreida, Kodri, Edgar & Yu 2019)

• Research training for doctoral students visiting foreign faculty (serving as host supervisors) at universities abroad (see Shen, 2018)

• Joint teaching and training programmes (see Nguyen, Nhan & Hien 2021).

1.6 Benefits Emanating from International Partnerships Between Universities A voluminous corpus of literature reporting on empirical research testifies to the benefits derived from international partnerships between universities. These benefits pertain to students, faculty, universities and nations. For students, international partnerships between universities, even if only virtually via online collaboration, have much potential value to bring together students and teachers from widely differing backgrounds, cultures and locations. These interactions offer intercultural awareness and intercultural education (see Lopez et al. 2019), combining global perspectives (Bosio 2023) and local relevance. This has been found to be effective even in cases where international cooperation between students from different nations take place only electronically (see Adriana et al. 2018). Reporting about their research on the impact of international field trips of students within the context of international partnership between institutions, and using Maslow’s Theory of Needs as a framework for interpretation, Chouhan et al. (2020) argue that such international experience harbours significant benefit in building self-esteem and self-confidence in students, enhancing extra-curricular activities whilse delivering a co-created curriculum in a fun and engaging manner, especially for students at risk of marginalisation, academic failure or underachievement. Research, such as that of Wiers-Jensen (2019), found that the motivations for international students can also be very pragmatic, but still rational. These include getting education in English (the rising international lingua franca), the attraction to countries with no-fee or low-fee higher education, the prospects of securing a job and being able to study in a safe environment. For faculty, empirical research has documented a demonstrable positive impact on international collaboration (see Payumo, Gerard & Neisler 2019; Ravitch & Carl 2018). Intercultural education, specifically learning how to teach and manage students from different cultural contexts, has also been registered in international collaboration, even in cases where such collaboration takes place exclusively digitally (see Adriana et al. 2018). At the university level, partnerships with universities abroad have the instrumental value of earning points on global university rankings and furthermore offer opportunities for academic cross-fertilisation and enrichment (see Wolhuter 2023). At the national level, the internationalisation of universities enhances the global standing of universities and the national higher education project, while in a competitive, globalised world, the nation as a whole can benefit from the expertise drawn from the internationalisation of higher education initiatives (Tetrevova & Vlckova 2020). 1.7 Challenges in Forging International Partnerships Between Universities For all the benefits emanating from forging international partnerships between universities, it is also a field fraught with difficulties, caveats and challenges. Clark and Wilson (2017) identify a number of pitfalls in exercises of international partnerships between universities: lacking a shared vision between the two institutions, lacking financial commitment and administrative support and recognising that international partnership activities may conflict with other priority activities. At times when social science scholarship has centred on asymmetrical power relations in the world and its effect on education, literature on unequal power relations between partnering universities appear with regular monotony (see Yarmoshuk, Cole, Mwangu, Guantai & Zarowsky 2020). Partnerships then tend to benefit the strongest partner, leaving the weaker partner with fewer benefits, marginalised or even disadvantaged. A substantial amount of this literature is about North-South partnering between universities. Mlambo & Baxter (2018) draw attention to the danger that international partnerships between universities, particularly between universities of the Global North and Global South, are often forged within the framework of such unequal power relations, and can serve the interests of the Global North party rather than constitute a mutually beneficial arrangement. In a recently published article, Asare, Mitchell and Rose (2022) reviewed over 1,000 studies published in English journals from 2010-2018 on research partnerships involving a sub-Saharan African partner and another from the Global North. The general pattern was that the latter is favoured disproportionally. Ng and Nyland (2018) conclude from a case study of a partnership entailing a joint undergraduate degree in Early Childhood Education between a university in China and Australia that present political environments and changing rules within the international education market make responsive and collaborative planning difficult to sustain. In such joint degrees, with students doing part of their degree at their home institution and the rest at a partner institution, there are always the caveats of de facto articulation barriers. And if that were true in 2018, during the years since the global context has remarkably deteriorated regarding being propitious to the free flow of international university partnerships (here the Covid-19 pandemic, the rise of political populism, xenophobia, the problems surrounding Russia and Ukraine and the ensuing strained international relations come to mind) (see Ghazarian, Bhandaria & Shuoyu 2023). On the topic of asymmetrical power relations and the dangers of using universities and university partnerships as political instruments, it cannot be omitted to mention the widespread criticism that has risen in recent times regarding the Confucius Institutes (see Edwards 2021; Lo & Pan 2018;). This criticism revolves around the alleged use of such institutes to engage in industrial and military espionage, surveillance of Chinese students abroad and attempts to advance the Chinese government’s political agendas on controversial issues such as Taiwan and human rights in China and Tibe t, thus undermining academic freedom. There are also challenges of a more practical or intra-educational kind, for example, international students encounter discordances in articulation between programmes in the exporting and importing country or institutions (see Wilson-Mah & Tomlinson 2018). 1.8 Conclusion The increasing imperative and resulting practice of internationalising universities worldwide has caused the forging of international partnerships between universities to become more common and even be a characterstic feature of the university. These international partnerships can take on many forms, but they typically include one or more of the following elements: Student and staff exchanges, research projects, joint research and innovation, joint or double degree programmes, curriculum development, knowledge exchange, capacity building, virtual collaboration, joint use of facilities and infrastructure, education to business ventures, international field trips for students, joint research training of students, research training for doctoral students visiting foreign faculty (serving as host supervisors) at universities abroad and joint teaching and training programmes, 2018). The exact nature or optimal nature of the partnership is determined by the (higher education system and societal) contextual contours and imperatives of the two institutions and countries. While the benefits are manifold, there are also caveats in such international partnerships. According to scholarly literature on the topic, the most salient is asymmetrical relations that disproportionally benefits Global North partners in North-South partnerships. Each institution should, in view of its own mission, institutional resources and context, do its own calculus regarding who to enter an international partnership with to enhance its higher education effort. Therefore, in the next chapter, the societal and education contexts of Japan and South Africa will be surveyed before the scope for partnership between Japanese and South African universities is assessed in Chapter 3. References Adriana L, Mauricio C, Doleres C, Loreida T, Kodri C, Edgar C & Yu H. 2019. Benefits, Challenges, and Opportunities of Conducting a Collaborative Research Course in an International University Partnership: A Study Case between Kansas State University and Tallinn University of Technology. 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Litnet Akademies, 20(1):313-333. https://doi.org/10.56273/1995-5928/2023/j20n1d3 Yarmoshuk AN, Cole DC, Mwangu M, Guantai AN & Zarowsky C. 2020. Reciprocity in Interuniversity Global Health Partnerships. Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research, 79(3):395-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00416-1 Zapp M & Dahmen C. 2017. The Diffusion of Educational Ideas among International Organizations: An Event History Analysis of Lifelong Learning, 1990-2013. Comparative Education Review, 61(3):492-518. https://doi.org/10.1086/692607 Chapter 2 Japan and South Africa: A Political, Economic, Social, Technological and Legal Evaluation Takayoshi Maki

International Education Development Program Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences Hiroshima University Japan maki@hiroshima-u.ac.jp C.C. Wolhuter

Comparative and International Education Professor North-West University South Africa Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.za 2.1 Introduction Educational structures worldwide are shaped by the societal frameworks within which they are embedded. To explore the scope of collaboration between South African and Japanese universities, our study examined the education systems and national backgrounds of these two countries, thereby aiming to map their education systems and societal contexts. The first part of the chapter will survey the South African societal and educational frameworks as well as the higher education system, followed by a similar survey of the situation pertaining to Japan in the second part of the chapter. Finally, after a comparison of these two, the scope for partnerships between Japanese and South African universities will be assessed. 2.2 South Africa 2.2.1 South African Societal Context 2.2.1.1 Geography South Africa covers about 1.2 million square kilometres at the southernmost section of the African continent. This geographical position is at the periphery of the world’s scientific, technological, educational and economic systems even in the present age of globalisation. With the core far away in North America and Western Europe (a vestige of the colonial era, but part of the reality of enduring asymmetrical global power relations) and a rising second core in Eastern Asia, the country is in a disadvantageous position. The 500 mm rainfall line cuts midway through the country, from north to south, dividing it into a semi-arid western half and an eastern, arable half receiving 500 mm plus rainfall every year. The southwestern corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate. 2.2.1.2 Demography The population of South Africa is about 60.1 million (mid-2021 figure, Peyper 2021:4). In the pre-1994 era, the country’s people were classified into four racial categories, which is still used in official documentation for purposes of tracking progress in equalisation and affirmative action. These categories are:

• Blacks: 48.6 million or 81% (people of African descent),

• Whites: 4.7 million or 8% (people of European descent),

• Indians: 1.5 million or 2% (people of Asian descent), and

• “Coloured”: 5.3 million or 9% (people from mixed racial descent) (Ibid.).

The Black population group has been in the country for ages. However, settlement of the White population group commenced with the establishment of a refreshment station in 1652 by the Dutch East Indian Company at present-day Cape Town. Over the course of time, the introduction of slaves from what is today Malaysia and Indonesia as well as intermarriage between Whites and Blacks led to the “coloured” component of the population (while the term “coloured” is still used officially in documentation related to the implementation of affirmative action policies, the categorisation and the name are extremely controversial). The most recent population group, the Indians, dates back to 1855. They migrated to work as indentured labourers on sugar farms. The population growth rate is 1.33% per year and has been decreasing for several years (World Bank 2022). The most recent addition to the demography of South Africa is the post-1994 influx of immigrants, mainly from other African countries and South Asia. The last census recorded the number of legal immigrants in the country as 2.2 million. With the addition of illegal immigrants, the figure comes up to 5 million by some estimates (for an extended study of the recent waves of immigration from other African countries in particular to South Africa and their impact on its economy, interested readers can refer to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Report 2018). 2.2.1.3 Politics After centuries of White rule and policies of extreme racial segregation, a new political dispensation came into effect in 1994. This dispensation is based on the constitution of a Western liberal democratic kind, containing a bill of human rights. Fukuyama (2004) describes a weak state as being incompetent in effectively performing core functions assigned to it such as providing security to citizens and delivering basic services, including running water, electricity, roads and public health systems. In contrast, an overregulated society stifles innovation and entrepreneurship and undermines the autonomy of civil society. The inept service delivery is compounded by corruption, cronyism and a lack of political accountability (see Johnson 2019; Pauw 2017; 2022). Moreover, the problem on the political front is the combination of a weak state and an overregulated society. 2.2.1.4 Economy According to the World Bank, South Africa is an upper-middle-income country. However, this statement needs to be qualified by a list. First, it is (as the Gini index of the country shows) one of the most unequal societies in the world. Moreover, the situation is exacerbated by socio-economic stratification, which corresponds to the racial divide, with Whites being mostly affluent and Blacks relatively impoverished. An indication of the stark inequality is that South Africa’s aggregate population ranks at 116 on the United Nations’ Human Development Index among all the countries in the world. However, if White South Africans are taken out of the equation as a separate group, the rank order rises up 100 places to number 16 (Sithole 2021:27). Second, even during the pre-coronavirus disease (COVID-19) years, the economy in the context of a weak or a weakening but over-controlling state and policy uncertainty, failed to grow faster than the rate of population, which means that South Africans, on average, are getting poorer. To aggravate matters, in 2020, owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the country’s economic growth came down to the negatives. In terms of employment, the great hopes harboured in 1994 at the onset of a new sociopolitical dispensation were dashed. In 1994, there were 3.4 million unemployed South Africans. Since the onset of COVID-19, the unemployment rate has multiplied more than three times to reach the 10 million mark (for a thorough analysis of the pressing and growing problem of youth unemployment in the country, the interested reader can refer to the Centre for Development & Enterprise Report 2017). 2.2.1.5 Sociocultural Situation Cultural diversity and the extant lack of social capital are two salient features of the sociocultural situation. Based on the demographic survey presented earlier, South Africa is the meeting point for people from three continents. Cultural diversity is also evident from the fact that the country has eleven official languages, the largest of which is the first language of less than 25% of the population. The lack of social capital is visible in the high crime rate (including violent crime), corruption and the culture of impunity. Every day, 68 murders are reported (Fraser 2023). A staggering number of more than 49,000 cases of sexual offences are reported to the police annually. Moreover, it is widely believed that many incidents of rape are never reported to the police. Only 8.6% of rape reports result in a guilty verdict in court (Rape Crisis, Cape Town Trust 2020). 2.2.1.6 Religion, Life and World Philosophy Seventy-six percent of South Africans declare themselves Christians, including Afrikaans-speaking and English-speaking Whites. To a considerable extent, coloured and Black people belong to different church denominations, and even different congregations in cases where they belong to the same denomination. Many Blacks of all denominations practice a kind of syncretic religion, combining Christianity with elements of traditional African religion, such as the worship of their ancestors. Eighty percent of South Africans of Indian descent are Hindus, whereas 8% are Muslims. At a secular level, modern, western, liberal, individualistic and materialistic philosophy, with its attached value system, has become widespread among all population groups, existing alongside traditional cultures and their philosophical systems. Religious groupings have their philosophical systems, whereas political groupings have their philosophical superstructures. 2.2.2 South African Education Formal education in South Africa began with the establishment of a refreshment station at Cape Town by the Dutch East Indian Company in 1652. In a typical colonial set-up, education (throughout the society) was segregated along racial lines. Separate schools for black (non-white) and white children were developed. These two organisations were highly unequal. In terms of infrastructure, teacher qualifications and quality, schools with white children were far superior to schools with black children. In the Black community, strong opposition to the system of segregated education developed in the mid-twentieth century. This opposition revolved around the Eurocentric nature of education and its unequal provision in South Africa (where schools with white children received better quality education than those with black children). Black children dropped out of school after only a few years. Moreover, their participation in secondary education and access to higher education were unequal, which drew criticism. Objections against the segregated and unequal education system were a rallying point in the sociopolitical turmoil that characterised South African society in the run-up to the 1994 political change. After taking over the government in 1994, the ANC (African National Congress) spelt out an education policy based on its ideals. The intrinsic goals of the post-1994 education systems were:

• desegregation

• democratisation

• decentralisation

• equal educational opportunities, and

• multicultural education.

The entire education system will aim, as extrinsic goals of education, to develop the entire population and to promote a complete range of societal goals, including the eradication of poverty, spurring economic growth and development and building a society free of racial, gender and other forms of unfair discrimination (see Wolhuter 2015). The assessment of an education project entails three dimensions: quantitative, qualitative and equality dimension (see Wolhuter 2014). South African requires assessment on all three dimensions. In the quantitative dimension, enrolments increased in recent years. Primary school enrolment increased from 7,444,802 in 2000 to 7,698,124 in 2021, whereas secondary school enrolments increased from 1,141,946 in 2000 to 5,353,649 in 2021 (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 2023). However, concerns about the rising number of school-age children who are not enrolled in school still prevail. Recent studies indicate that there are 843,050 children of primary school age, 207,714 children of lower secondary school age and 607,129 youths of upper secondary school age not in schools (2019 figures) (UNESCO 2021). Moreover, the net enrolment ratios seem to be slipping. The net primary school enrolment ratio dropped from 95.68% in 2015 to 89.21% in 2019; the lower secondary school enrolment ratio was steady at 89.68% in 2019, while the upper secondary school enrolment ratio decreased from 87.53% in 2015 to 79.06% in 2021 (UNESCO 2021). Education quality is a concept difficult to define. Therefore, it is more comprehensible to enumerate the components of education quality. Wolhuter and Van der Walt (2018) distinguish between the following components of education quality: input, process, output and product quality. Based on the indication of these components, the quality of education in South Africa is seriously lacking. For example, for input quality, Hodgson’s (2021) study found that of the 23,471 state schools, only 28% had Internet access. The study further reported that many schools lacked basic essentials. For example, 19% had illegal pit latrines and 37% had no sanitation facilities. On the academic front, 77% had no libraries, 42% had no sports or recreational facilities and 85% lacked the physical infrastructure to provide quality instruction (Hodgson 2021). For instance, in the most recent cycle of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS), South Africa was the second last out of 39 participating countries (TIMSS, 2019). The average score of Grade 8 South African learners in the mathematics test was 372, compared with other countries like Singapore (which came first): 621, Russia: 538, United States of America: 518, Australia: 505, Turkey: 458, Egypt: 392, Botswana: 391 and Saudi Arabia (which ended last): 368. It is conspicuous that usually the schools with black children are poor in terms of quality. This brings the discussion to the next point, namely, equality in education. Education in South Africa is highly unequal. As stated earlier, the most glaring fault usually lies between schools of white and black children. Historically, schools catering to white children offer an education comparable to the best in the world, whereas those with black children leave much to be desired regarding the quality of education. Other dimensions of inequality in education, which occur worldwide, include socio-economic descent, gender and the rural-urban divide. Educational inequalities, interrelated with the socio-economic status of families, are strongly present, but the discourse about education is truncated by the discussion of racial inequalities. For example, while 90% of four-year-old children from the most affluent quintile of South African families are in structured, formal early learning programs, the corresponding figure for the poorest quintile is 50% (Berry, Almeleh, Giese, Hall, Masitery & Sanke 2017:35). 2.2.3 Higher Education in South Africa If the development of education in South Africa was late and slow, higher education has been worse. The first university in South Africa was established only in the mid-nineteenth century. The universities followed the historic trajectory set by the primary plan of colonialism and apartheid: separate, segregated universities were created for White and Black South Africans. By the end of the 1980s, there were 11 universities for white and black students, respectively. The industrialisation and development of a strong mining sector and the general economic development of the country necessitated the development of higher education institutions offering technical-vocational education. Thus, a new kind of institution, called a Technikon, came into being in the twentieth century. By the end of the 1980s, there were 13 Technikons in South Africa: seven for Whites and six for Black people. With the onset of the new sociopolitical dispensation in 1994, the same imperatives impacting education in general, explained above, exerted their force on the higher education sector. In 2001, the Minister of Higher Education launched radical reforms with the stated purpose of ending the segregated and unequal higher education policies. However, the restructured strategy fell short of this ideal. The number of higher education institutions (universities and Technikons) was reduced from 36 to 24 through several mergers. In 2003, the name ‘Technikons’ was replaced by the name ‘Universities of Technology’. Since 2003, two new public universities have been established. While the Constitution and the Higher Education Act allow for private universities, the size of this sector, mainly because of government animosity, remains negligibly small. The number of university students in South Africa soared from 495,355 in 1994 to 1,157,021 in 2021 (UNESCO 2023). Despite spectacular progress in enrolment growth since 1994, the higher education sector in South Africa is beset by a host of pressing problems. Despite the increase in enrolment, the gross enrolment ratio is still relatively low. The higher education gross enrolment ratio in South Africa is 25% (World Bank, 2023a). While it towers over the sub-Saharan aggregate gross of the higher education enrolment ratio of 9%, the average gross higher education enrolment ratio of upper middle-income countries (in which South Africa falls) is 63% (Ibid.). An internationalisation drive has occurred in the congenial post-1994 context. Rather than promoting a global flow of ideas and students, ultimately benefitting South African higher education and society, internationalisation is a one-way process: inbound international students are mainly from neighbouring Southern African states, while outbound students choose European and North American universities, where they often remain after graduation, thus contributing to the brain drain affecting South Africa (see Wolhuter2023). 2.3 Japan 2.3.1 Japan’s Societal Context 2.3.1.1 Geography The Japanese festoon of islands is located to the west of the Pacific Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere. Japan’s neighbouring countries are the Republic of Korea, China and Russia. The land area is 377,930 square kilometres and consists of four main islands from north to south: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. Additionally, there are 6,852 small islands (World Population Review 2021). The stretch of the land between the northern and southern tips is approximately 3,000 kilometres. Thus, climate division varies from sub-polar or subarctic to subtropical zones. Consequently, Japanese people experience four seasons in a year: spring with cherry blossoms, summer with seaside beaches, autumn with maple leaves and winter with snow. The vertical difference also varies with mountain ranges from north to south of the mainland, including active volcanoes such as Mt. Aso on Kyushu and Mt. Fuji on Honshu. These features enhance the supply of fresh underground water that flows in rapid rivers through all cities, towns and villages to merge with the ocean. The forest area covers two-thirds of the total land, while the rest of the region is for residence and farming (Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering, n.d.). With the above-described variety of climates and rich natural resources, the Japanese enjoy an abundance of rice and a variety of vegetables and fruits throughout the country during all four seasons. It is worth noting that Japan experiences natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and typhoons. However, such disasters strengthen the Japanese citizens’ capability for endurance (Watsuji & Bownas 1961). 2.3.1.2 Demography The total population of Japan is 125,120,000 as of 1 October 2021 based on the latest population estimates of the Statistics Bureau of Japan (2021a). The population density is about 340.8 persons per square kilometre. Since 2015, 12 cities have over 1 million people each, including: Tokyo (9.27 million), Yokohama city (3.37 million), Osaka city (2.69 million) and Nagoya city (2.30 million) (Statistics Bureau of Japan 2021b). Today, Japan’s population is decreasing, with a birth rate of 865,239 in 2019, called the “860,000 shocks” because it is the lowest on record (Cabinet Office 2021b). In contrast, the proportion of people aged 65 and over was 17.4% in 2000, but it has increased to 28.8% in 2020 (Cabinet Office 2021a). The number of marriages decreased by 12.7%, while the number of pregnancies decreased by 5.1% compared with the previous year. Therefore, the government is enhancing supportive measures in marriage, pregnancy, childbirth and child-rearing (Cabinet Office 2021b). Moreover, according to future population estimates, the population of 18-year-olds in 2040 will be 880,000, just 74% of the 1.2 million in 2017. Additionally, the number of students entering universities is expected to reduce to 510,000, 80% of the 630,000 in 2017 (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology [MEXT] 2021a). 2.3.1.3 Political System Japan has had a constitutional monarchy as its political model since the Meiji era (which commenced in 1868), during which Japan began its modernisation. Until today, this polity has maintained the constitutional monarchy, with the emperor as a symbol of unity of the state, a two-chamber legislative system and separation of powers between the administration, legislation and judicature (Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, n.d.). The current political situation includes the prime minister’s office, which leads education reform. Since 1984, the Prime Ministers have been establishing private advisory bodies including the National Council on Education Reform under Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, the National Commission on Educational Reform under Prime Ministers Keizo Obuchi and Yoshiro Mori and the Education Rebuilding Council and the Council for the Implementation of Education Rebuilding under Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. These advisory bodies have been deliberating and forming recommendations for education reform, which are then executed accordingly. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Education also has the Central Council for Education as a permanently installed official advisory body to investigate and deliberate important basic policies concerned with education, science and culture (Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA] 2004). In September 2021, the cabinet decision document abolished the Council for the Implementation of Education Rebuilding, which will then be replaced by a new council. In 2021, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida began his term, and his future governmental policies will be closely monitored. 2.3.1.4 Economy A state of emergency was intermittently declared in 2021 owing to COVID-19. However, as mobility-related restrictions have gradually reduced, the expenditure is on the way to recovery (Mitsubishi Research Institute 2021). The percentage of people who have completed vaccination in Japan has risen to about 74% (Prime Minister’s Office 2021) and economic activity is expected to resume gradually. In 2022, the economic growth rate of Japan was 1.0% (World Bank 2023b). As mentioned in the previous demography section, Japan faces a severely ageing society with a declining birth-rate, resulting in reliance on foreign workers. As of 2019, there are 1.65 million foreign workers in Japan with China, Vietnam and the Philippines accounting for 60% of the total foreign workers. However, problems surrounding foreign workers require the urgent attention of the Japanese government (see Nippon 2020a). 2.3.1.5 Sociocultural Situation Because of COVID-19, society and culture in Japan has changed drastically. Despite Japan’s history being described as a mono-ethnic country, which is not totally the case, the country is home to minorities such as Koreans (Zainichi) oldcomers and Chinese, Brazilian, Vietnamese, Philippines and Thai newcomers. There are also First Nations people in Hokkaido (Ainu), discriminated outcast people (Burakumin), overseas returnees (Kikokushijo) and ‘double’ or hybrid-identity Amerasian people in Okinawa. Moreover, there is a substantial educational disparity between the Japanese majorities and minorities (Gordon, Fujita, Kariya & LeTendre 2010). This disparity is not limited to an income gap but extends to opportunity discrepancies. Additionally, many Japanese admit that wealthier families are better off in terms of educational opportunities (Tachibana 2021). 2.3.1.6 Religion, Life and World Philosophy Most Japanese are deemed pious, belonging to either Shinto or Buddhist religions, with a few others belonging to either Christianity or Islam. Notably, Japanese people’s annual events also demonstrate diversity in terms of their religious beliefs. During the New Year holiday, they respect a multitude of gods at Shinto shrines. The Japanese have romantic notions about celebrating weddings in a church. One month after a child’s birth, they are taken to a Shinto shrine to pay respects and pray for their health and prosperity. However, when organising funerals, the Japanese follow Buddhist customs. In December, the Japanese celebrate Christmas, when many families decorate Christmas trees at home and visit temples to ring the bell 108 times, which is considered to be the number of earthly desires. On New Year’s Eve and New Year’s Day, they visit the Shinto shrine to mark the start of new life (Ebeid 2016). The Japanese view of the world is deeply connected to nature. As mentioned above, Japan has four seasons, and although natural disasters have hit the country in recent years, the Japanese continue to help each other and keep thriving. They even write phrases appropriate to the seasons at the beginning of letters. Additionally, the dishes on the menu reflect the seasons. This deep connection with nature is the foundation of the Japanese worldview (Kondo 2013). 2.3.2 Education in Japan Pressure from strong Western powers has influenced Japan’s education system, prompting it to focus on modernising the country’s wealth, military and industrial development. Moreover, Japan advanced towards war under the emperor’s system of public education following the Imperial Rescript on Education in 1890. After World War II, Japan experienced democratisation promoted by the United States and high economic growth (JICA 2004). During this time, the education system was also characterised by democratisation (Maki & Hida 2021:240-241). Since the 1980s, Japan has promoted neoliberal educational reforms (Kitamura 2014) which are consistent with features of the Global Educational Reform Movement (GERM). As described by Sahlberg (2012), the features of GERM include standardisation of education, focus on core subjects, the search for low-risk ways to reach learning goals, the use of cooperating management models and test-based accountability policies. After World War II, the educational administration in Japan based its basic principles on legalisation, separation of independence (securing political neutrality) and local decentralism. For example, the MEXT legally notified the National Curriculum to standardise textbooks’ contents (i.e., contents of education). Additionally, all internal and external matters of education are organised according to the Standards for Establishment of Schools, the Education Personnel Certification Act and other related laws and regulations (Omomo 2019). In contrast, since the pre-war era, the Board of Education, based on professional leadership and layman control, has managed and supervised schools, faculty and staff, thus securing political neutrality and decentralisation. In response, various systems that combine to ensure accountability, such as school and teacher evaluation systems, have been introduced and implemented (Katsuno 2019; Omomo 2019). With the amendment of the Fundamental Law of Education in 2006, educational administrative intervention on internal education matters such as the National Assessment of Academic Ability became legalised (causing teachers to lose their educational freedom) and the Education Promotion Basic Plan was formulated under Article 17 of the same law (Omomo 2019). Although securing decentralisation and autonomy of political neutrality are stated, school education is under centralised control by the cabinet. Under neoliberalism, self-responsibility and personalisation are advancing. Recently, moral education has become a special subject to maintain cohesive power as a nation-state. In the early stages of COVID-19, Japanese schools were closed nationwide. Moreover, efforts to ensure online learning opportunities were implemented across the country at all levels of education. However, there were reports that online classes were rarely implemented (Nippon 2020b). Education officials have indicated that children of single parents and poor families were adversely impacted. Moreover, resources such as the Internet and laptops necessary for online education were not available to all (Nippon 2020c). In January 2021, the Central Council for Education issued a report on the future of school education: Japanese Style School Education in Reiwa Era. It outlines the direction of reforms that will bring out the potential of all children through personalised and collaborative learning to respond to Society 5.0 and an unpredictable future (MEXT 2021b). 2.3.3 Higher Education in Japan Japan’s school education is based on a 6-3-3 system, after which four years of university and two to five years of postgraduate programmes are established. The mission of universities in Japan is outlined in Article 7 of the Fundamental Law of Education.

1. Universities are the core of scholarly activities, which contribute to the development of society by cultivating advanced knowledge and specialised skills, enquiring deeply into the truth to create new knowledge, and broadly offering the fruits of these endeavours to society.

2. Autonomy, independence and other unique characteristics of university education and research must be respected.

There are national, public and private institutions of higher education in Japan, and as of August 2021, there are 86 national universities, 98 public universities and 619 private universities (MEXT 2021c). Having so many private universities are a characteristic of higher education in Japan, and more broadly in Asia than in the West (Altbach & Umakoshi 2004). About 80% of school education is public, while about 77% of universities are private. In 2020, 83.5% of the 18-year-old population continued in higher education institutions, and 54.4% were enrolled in a four-year college or university (MEXT 2020). Meanwhile, in terms of the number of students enrolled in postgraduate programmes in 2021, there are 75,306 in doctoral programmes, of which 51,040 are national universities, 18,953 are private universities and 5,313 are public universities. In other words, national universities are central institutions for developing researchers and other professionals (MEXT 2021c). In 2004, a decision to incorporate Japan’s national and public universities was taken. This corporatisation is the root of many problems surrounding higher education in Japan today (Komagome 2021). Incorporation was expected to liberate universities from traditional constraints to fully realise the academic freedom stipulated in Article 23 of the Constitution of Japan, allowing universities to develop their unique research and educational activities more autonomously. However, operating expense subsidies are being reduced annually (Morozumi 2019). As a result, universities have been forced to limit the replacement of retired faculty members drastically. Furthermore, universities must engage in competitive grants to obtain external funding. The research capacity of Japanese universities is declining as faculty members are busy writing applications to obtain external financing (Torii 2021). Additionally, recent research on university governance reform highlights that universities have become the personal property of a few people. According to the study, the authority of a small number of university executives, including the president, has been strengthened. The president’s selection is such that some universities allow the president to continue being the president if they are alive, or a small number of people can choose the president without regard to the vote or the will of the university members (Komagome & Kurihara 2021). Despite the complex environment caused by the incorporation mentioned above, Japanese universities also focus on internationalisation (see Morel 2023). However, COVID-19 has made it difficult to study abroad physically, and they are working on securing opportunities for online study. As of November 2021, the number of people infected with COVID-19 in Japan has been declining, and university education is switching from online to face-to-face classes. In the future, internationalisation will further advance, depending on whether travel is possible like during the pre-COVID era. However, as mentioned earlier, the internationalisation of research and education activities under a selective and concentrated regime and during the competition for external funding will require a lot of sacrifices. 2.4 Conclusion South Africa and Japan are approximately 14,000 kilometres apart. Due to the lack of connecting flights, the entire journey takes over 20 hours by air. Thus, South Africa and Japan are vastly different in terms of population, ethnic composition, social, economic and political situations and all schooling and higher education aspects. However, we are colleagues in comparative education, and there is much to be learned from drawing comparisons between the two countries. For example, while South Africa is a multi-ethnic society, many foreign workers and their children live in Japan. This internal internationalisation can also be seen in schools and higher education. We enquired how higher education can support internationalisation in school education. Moreover, we assessed the contribution of higher education to the internationalisation of the local community. Second, both countries share the same problems of inequality and disparity in education. Inequality is a challenge faced by many countries. In the context of COVID-19, we introduced online classes in Japanese schools and universities, but the implementation was not completely successful. In contrast, digitalisation is progressing rapidly in emerging countries (i.e., Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa [BRICS]). Thus, Japan and other countries can learn from the digital technology in South Africa and other emerging countries. Finally, universities exist in both countries. Thus, the exchange of researchers, graduate and undergraduate students from both countries in various aspects of education and research in higher education institutions is possible in the future. Moreover, both higher education systems desire an increase in research activity and output. The relationship should enhance the United Nations Research Agenda, African Union Research Priorities and the vision spelt out in the COP28 Summit and the place of North-South collaboration in realising this vision and international collaboration can contribute towards the realisation of this goal (see Anon 2023; Bega & Nyathi 2023). With regard to teaching and learning, Japan and South Africa are at different stages of demographic transition. The youthful population profile in South Africa and the shortage of university space for prospective students seem inversely proportional to the situation in Japan, where there is a decline in university-age population and an abundance of student space. Both countries can collaborate to complement each other. Memorandums of Understanding between Japanese and South African universities should take advantage of push factors present in both countries’ contexts, while at the same time plan to handle adverse, repulsive factors. Examples of the former include entrepreneurship, innovation, technology, possible public-private-university partnerships, African context, academic freedom and freedom of speech. An example of the latter is the call for decolonisation and for Africanisation of African universities. With democracy in visible retreat in many parts of the world, notably in Africa (see Soyinka 2023), universities in South Africa and Japan can harness their synergy as two democratic societies to strengthen democracy in two parts of the world where it is coming under threat. This book further shows the cooperation and collaboration between African and Japanese universities in education and research activities. 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South African Journal of Education, 34(2):1-25. https://doi.org/10.15700/201412071120 Wolhuter CC. 2015. The Case of the Education System of South Africa on the World Map: Inspiring Case or Call for Guidance from Abroad? In: CC Wolhuter, L Jacobs & HJ Steyn (eds). Thinking about Education Systems. Volume 2015. Noordbrug: Keurkopie, 57-77. Wolhuter CC. 2023. Internationalization of Higher Education in South Africa: Unintended Consequences Brought from Contextual Contours. In: S Kamyab & R Raby (eds). Internationalization of Higher Education Practices and the Unintended Consequences: A Global Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge, 283-297. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003189916-19 Wolhuter CC & Van der Walt JL. 2018. Wat is Fout met Suid-Afrikaanse Skole: Geheelbeeld van, en Leemte in die Navorsing oor skoolleierskap as Sleutelfaktor [What is Wrong with South African Schools: Comprehensive Picture and Lacuna of School Leadership as Pivotal Factor] Lit Net Akademies (Opvoedkunde), 15(2):463-485. World Bank. 2022. World Development Indicators. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?view=chart [15 July 2022]. World Bank. 2023a. Gross Enrollment Ratio (%), Tertiary. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR [13 December 2023]. World Bank. 2023b. Japan. https://data.worldbank.org/country/JP [14 December 2023]. World Population Review. 2021. Japan Population 2021 (Live). https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/japan-population [3 November 2021]. Chapter 3 Scope of Partnerships Between Universities in Japan and South Africa: The South African Perspective C.C. Wolhuter

Comparative and International Education Professor North-West University South Africa Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.za T.S. Mashau

University of Venda South Africa Takalani.Mashau@univen.ac.za Takayoshi Maki

International Education Development Program Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences Hiroshima University Japan maki@hiroshima-u.ac.jp 3.1 Introduction Universities are increasingly dotting the global education landscape. It has not always been so. The oldest university in the world is barely a millennium old. Most universities have been recently established—decades ago rather than centuries. In the sub-Saharan region, for example, excluding the historically White South African universities, right down to the 1950s, there were but three universities in this vast region: Makerere University in East Africa, Fourah Bay College in West Africa and the University of Fort Hare in South Africa. With the advent of independence during the second half of the twentieth century, the governments of the newly independent African states founded national universities as one of the priorities in their establishment of a new state and nation. In the 1990s, the number of universities began to increase as new public universities were created, and more so, as private universities mushroomed. These universities face many challenges. They are part of a global network of universities but need to facilitate activity between themselves and other global universities to enable knowledge exchange, for their own benefit, but also for the benefit of universities outside of Africa. It is here where partnerships between universities come into the picture. The aim of this volume is to explore the scope for partnership between Japanese and South African universities. This chapter provides the frame within which to read and understand the ensuing chapters of the volume. The chapter commences with a portrayal of global higher education in the past thirty years. A renewed internationalisation drive is explained as one dimension of global higher education. One mode of such internationalisation is forging partnerships between universities. The case of uneven and, in many instances, unique trajectory of internationalisation at South African universities is then reconstructed. Japan is then represented as a candidate for partnering to complement the current uneven pattern of internationalisation at South African universities. 3.2 The Current Phase of Global Higher Education Evolution A signature feature of the present era in human history is the worldwide higher education expansion. It is a basic theorem in the scholarly field of Comparative and International Education that education systems are shaped by societal forces. Typically, these are specified as geography, demography, level of scientific and technological development, social system, economy, political system and religion, life and world philosophy. Consequently, education systems can only be understood from these societal forces (Harris & Jones 2018). Similarly, the global higher education evolution has been driven by a number of societal drivers, and to fully comprehend this revolution, these societal drivers need to be surveyed first. Finally, the main dimensions constituting this revolution will be discussed as well as the revolution itself. 3.2.1 The Societal Drivers of the Global Higher Education Revolution There are at least nine interrelated societal forces driving the global higher education revolution, namely demographic dynamics, growing economic affluence, the emergence of knowledge economies, the neo-liberal economic revolution, the information, communication and transport technology (ICT) revolution, the formation of multicultural societies, democratisation, individualisation and the rise of the Creed of Human Rights. In recent decades, the world has been the scene of a demographic explosion. Each year, 81 million people are added to the total global population. Most of this growth is taking place in Global South countries. The result of this population explosion is that each year the demand for higher education is bigger. Another demographic trend is that the global population is becoming an increasingly mobile population. The number of international migrants in the world (i.e., those residing in a country other than their birth country) grows at a rate of 2.4% per year (Institute National d’Etudes Demographiques 2020). Besides international mobility, the short-term and distance mobility of daily travel has increased in recent times. At least three forceful economic trends are currently fuelling the global higher education revolution. Since 1990, the world has entered one of the most sustained and strongest phases of economic growth in history. In the ten-year period from 2005-2015, the annual global economic output has more than doubled, from US$29.6 trillion to US$78.3 trillion (World Bank 2016). This rise has continued to reach US$ 84.4 trillion in 2018 and US$101 trillion in 2022 (World Bank 2023). This upswing has brought higher education to an affordable level for more people. A second economic trend is the emergence of knowledge economies. A knowledge economy is an economy where the production and consumption of new knowledge become the driving axis of the economy. In such an economy, an even higher value is attached to higher education than in any of the preceding phases. Besides the economic upswing since 1990, a third economic trend has been the neo-liberal economic revolution. This revolution is characterised by a state’s diminished role, not only in the economy but also in other sectors of society, such as transport, health services, and — important for its effect on higher education— education, giving the forces of the free market free reign (see Davies & Bansel 2007). The ICT revolution has created an instant 24-hour global information network, comprising free access to and widespread use of the personal computer, Internet, fax machine and mobile telephone. In the higher education sector, this revolution has made higher education accessible to larger numbers of people, particularly by expanding distance education programmes. This revolution has also made possible the more mobile global population, referred to above. Societies have become diverse and multicultural, replacing the more homogenous societies of past times. Concomitant with the economic upswing and neo-liberal economic revolution, a process of democratisation has taken place in large parts of the world since 1990. The process of democratisation, together with the emergence of the Creed of Human Rights as a new global moral order and the empowerment that the ICT revolution brought to individuals, all have given impetus to another trend in modern society: individualisation. By emphasising the importance of the self, more and more people lay claim to access higher education. 3.2.2 Dimensions of the Global Higher Education Revolution The above-identified societal drivers have, in concert, given rise to a global higher education revolution. Manifest features of this global higher education revolution are: massification, competition and differentiation, changing funding patterns, changing relations with government and industry, a call for relevance, the rise of Mode II knowledge, exceptional growth in distance education, internationalisation, managerialism, a new student profile and a changed academic profession. Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley (2009) single out massification as the prime feature of this global higher education revolution. Globally, higher education enrolments have grown from 67.8 million in 1990 (when the global higher education revolution commenced) to 253.3 million in 2020 (UNESCO 2023)—a more than threefold increase. Even after factoring in global population growth, the global aggregate gross higher education enrolment ratios more than doubled (in fact, also almost tripled) from 14% in 1990 to 40% in 2020 (World Bank 2023). The rapid expansion in the current context has resulted in two, apparently opposite trends. Firstly, in the competitive globalised world, virtually every higher education institution aspires to become a world-class university. However, at the same time, the second trend means the proliferation of universities has necessitated differentiation, different kinds of institutions, each seeking a particular niche. The unchecked expansion of higher education, especially within the context of the neo- education expansion project, became unfashionable and outright unsustainable. Funding patterns changed as the costs of higher education shifted from government to the direction of the clientele, i.e., industry and students. The extreme end of this trend is the growth of private universities. Today, 33% of higher education enrollments worldwide are in private universities (UNESCO 2022). In many parts of the world, the national treasury remains the single largest source of finance for universities. True to the creed of neo-liberal economics, governments then demand more say in universities. This constitutes a radical change from the autonomy and freedom from government interference that universities (at least in the Western world) were guaranteed until a generation ago. It is not only university-government relations that have changed. Industries, in return for their financial commitment to universities, demand a say in universities, representing another force undermining the autonomy of universities. Consequently, curricula and programmes are structured to be more relevant to the needs of industry. The tenets of the neo-liberal economic revolution, such as performance measurement, efficiency and accountability, manifest themselves in the management style of universities, thus establishing a totally new professional environment for the academic profession. The ICT revolution gave particular momentum to the distance higher education sector. The economic affluence, ICT revolution and global isomorphism created by democratisation, the Creed of Human Rights and the neo-liberal economic revolution all serve as catalysts for the increased internationalisation of higher education, including the internationalisation of students, faculty and curricula (see Kamyab & Raby 2023) (this will be elaborated on in the next section). Introducing principles from the neo-liberal economic revolution into the university, such as the profit motive, performance appraisal, performativity, efficiency, quality control and the like, has spurred a strong trend of managerialism in the university, unknown even a single generation ago. The student profile also changed, from the rather docile, submissive student of a generation ago, coming to university to learn from the professor to a more demanding student (now known as a ‘client’). 3.2.3 Critical Assessment of the Global Higher Education Revolution The global higher education revolution constitutes a commendable, heartening achievement of humanity in the past decades, in so far as it has expanded access to higher education to those who did not have the privilege previously. But while the global higher education revolution serves as a benevolent force in society (especially since the value of higher education is destined to increase even more within the context of emerging knowledge economics and the approaching Fourth Industrial Revolution), the revolution also has its share of discontents and problematic aspects that should be noted in any balanced assessment. The first problem is the growing number of unemployed graduates, representing a waste of both public and private resources, feelings of personal failure and a source of socio-political turmoil. In South Africa, the unemployment rate among young graduates under 24 years of age—while substantially lower than the unemployment rate among those with fewer qualifications—is growing, reaching 31% in the first quarter of 2019 (Statistics SA 2019). Over 3 million graduates in South Africa are unemployed (Solomons 2021:1). It is not simply a matter of an economy not strong enough to absorb the growing output of graduates, but also the vexing problem of aligning the worlds of education and work in the sense of ensuring universities provide the kind of education and skills required by the economy. The second problem is resolving the issue of who should pay for the ever-rising bill of higher education. Strong arguments exist for and against expecting each of the constituencies of government, students, parents and industry to pay (see Wolhuter 2023a). Two essential features of the university (at least in its historically evolved form) are autonomy and the pursuit of academic excellence. The global higher education revolution poses a serious threat to both of these. The increased control that both government and industry claim in the affairs of universities violates or at least diminishes institutional autonomy. The culture of managerialism from government and institutional management likewise erodes the autonomy and academic freedom of academics. The profit motive supplants the quest for truth and excellence as summum bonum in academe. The denudation of academic autonomy and freedom is objectionable because academic autonomy is a sine qua non not only for the pursuit of truth as the highest ideal of the university, but also for the university to fulfil its indispensable role in exercising societal critique, acting as the conscience of society (see Kratou & Laasko 2021; Sawahel 2021). Finally, the pressures of the neo-liberal economic revolution and the parameters these laid down for the global higher education revolution mean a neglect of the function of the university with regard to the preservation, transmittance and development of the cultural wealth of humanity (Wolhuter & Jacobs 2021:298). This does not mean impoverishing the richness and quality of human life, but it has wider adverse consequences. For example, the lack of attention and resources to developing dictionaries will negatively affect scholarly development as science and scholarly writing depend on precise word choice and careful language use. 3.3 Part of the Global Higher Education Revolution is a More Vigorous Pursuit of Internationalisation As was indicated earlier, one feature of the global higher education revolution is the enhanced or more vigorous pursuit of internationalisation. In higher education scholarship, Jane Knight’s (1996, updated 2003) definition of internationalisation is commonly taken as a working definition. Knight (2003) defines the internationalisation of higher education as “integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education”. Knight’s (1996) taxonomy includes political, economic, academic and cultural rationales. Political reasons for nations or governments to internationalise universities can range from pursuing high places on global university rankings to giving faculty and students exposure to and interaction with the best universities in the world to improve the competitiveness of its population (see Kamyab & Raby 2023). Economic reasons for pursuing internationalisation include not only developing a country’s human capital base but also, for many countries, the advantages of attracting international students and the investments they bring, including direct contributions like student fees and indirect costs such as accommodation, food and clothes. According to the United States of America’s (USA) Department of Commerce, international students contributed US$45 billion in 2018 (IIE 2021). The A$38.4 million generated annually by international students in Australia means that after ore and fossil fuels, international students are Australia’s third largest source of foreign income (World’s Top Exports 2021). Australia is also the third major exporter of international education after the USA and the United Kingdom (UK). From 2014-2015, international education has supported over 130,000 jobs in Australia (Ng & Nyland 2018:53). Academic rationales include the advantages of academic cross-fertilisation and the need to combat academic parochialism (see Wolhuter 1994). The internationalisation drive of universities has, however, not been exempted from its discontents. A body of critical literature has emerged taking aim at the kind of internationalisation manifest at universities, with Canadian scholar Sharon Stein being the most renowned author. This criticism revolves around the structure of power relations in a globalised world. Internationalisation (at least in its present form) is then deemed to represent nothing but a vehicle of Global North universities pursuing their own interests (see Asare, Mitchell & Rose 2022; Marginson 2023; Stein 2019; Yang 2014). Even efforts at South-South partnerships between universities have not been spared criticism as serving to reinforce existing asymmetrical power relations in the world (see Ress 2018). One way universities are pursuing internationalisation is by forging international partnerships with universities abroad (Saito & Kim 2019:48). Within the context of the global higher education revolution (with its unabating expansion of higher education) and globalisation (including global competition between nations and the ease of internationalisation made possible by the information and communication technology revolution), this forging of international partnerships of universities has grown impressively in recent years (see Barber, Donnelly & Rizvi 2013; Clark & Wilson 2017). 3.4 South African Universities’ Interesting, Uneven History of Internationalisation Higher education in South Africa, as was typical in any colonial set-up, was late to start and slow to develop. The first rudiments of a university appeared on the South African landscape only in the second half of the nineteenth century. During the first phase, until the mid-twentieth century, the umbilical cord with universities in the UK and Netherlands figured strongly. These links also defined the internationalisation aspect of South African universities. Then, from about 1960-1990, as a gesture of opposition to South Africa’s policies of segregation, the international community subjected South Africa to a salvo of international sanctions and isolation measures across trade, economics, politics, diplomacy, education, culture and sports. These included an academic boycott which entailed refusals to

• travel to South Africa or invite South Africans abroad,

• publish South African manuscripts internationally,

• collaborate with South African scholars,

• provide access to information (e.g., books, computer software),

• let South African academics participate at international conferences and

• give South African academics access to certain institutions abroad (Harricombe & Lancaster 1995:30).

Given this historical background of South African higher education, higher education policies focused on domestic imperatives, on both national and institutional levels, at the commencement of the new socio-political dispensation after 1994. The main imperatives were increasing access to higher education and equalising higher education. However, in policy documents, the yearning for and appreciation of the value of internationalisation are evident. The 1997 White Paper on Higher Education Transformation (RSA 1997a) was the first major policy document on higher education released by the government which took over in 1994. While this white paper concentrated on the domestic issues mentioned above, it also noted that higher education and scholarship in South Africa had become very closed and inward-looking, cut off from the international scholarly community. Breaking out of this isolation was going to be a challenge. Similarly, the need for universities to be internationally competitive and the need for international student mobility can be read in the document. Building on the 1997 White Paper, the ensuing Higher Education Act (Act 101 of 1997) was also very much focused on domestic issues in the South African higher education project (RSA 1997b). The term ‘international’ is mentioned only once in the Act, stating that institutions of higher education should be up to international standards. Then, in 2019, the Ministry of Higher Education released a Policy Paper on the Internationalisation of Higher Education. This Paper states that internationalisation should be pursued so that international communication, cross-cultural learning and global citizenship education will be promoted (RSA 2019a:17). Furthermore, the goals of the internationalisation of higher education in South Africa are spelt out as follows:

• to position the higher education system to be competitive in a globalised world;

3.3.2.2. to advance the quality of higher education;

• to enhance intellectual diversity – nationally and regionally – in teaching and learning, research, and community engagement aspects of higher education;

• to benefit society and enhance opportunities for higher education to contribute to the public good; and

• to contribute towards the development of scholars and scholarship capable of addressing global challenges.

(RSA 2019a:20) The policy document further states that this internationalisation drive should take place within the parameters of the principles of academic autonomy and complementarity (between South African and international partner institutions) (RSA 2019a:22-23). Meanwhile, years prior to 2019, at institutional level, the yearning expressed in the above-mentioned series of documents was repeated. Universities have formulated idealistic mission statements, focusing on the role of their institutions in national development and societal reconstruction (see Wolhuter 2023b). While South African universities and scholars have seized the opportunities which presented themselves after the international boycott was lifted in the early 1990s, and with South Africa becoming the focus of global interest and optimism, the CAP (Changing Academic Profession) International Survey of the Academic Profession reported low levels of internationalisation: the percentage of the profession who obtained their highest degrees in South Africa remains over 90% and publications in international journals and books remain low (see Wolhuter 2015). These may be related to:

• The peripheral geographical location of South Africa, far from the international centre of the scholarly world in Western Europe and North America (and East Asia) and

• The difficulty in developing research productivity at South African universities due to the historical mission of universities as teaching institutions and the heavy teaching demands (in terms of teaching loads and students entering the university system academically ill-prepared for the rigours of university study) (see Wolhuter 2015).

As far as international student mobility is concerned, statistics released by the South African Ministry of Higher Education and Training report in 2016, there were 69,381 international students studying at South African universities (RSA 2019b:31). However, this constitutes a mere 7% of the student corps at South African universities. Furthermore, 66.1% of these students hail from other Southern African countries. Regarding outbound international students, these numbered only 9,130 (2018 figure, UNESCO 2021). This is grossly disproportionate to the number of inbound international students, and while hard statistics are not available, it can safely be assumed that these are mostly students from universities in the Global North. Such outbound mobility is the first step in such students joining the brain drain from South Africa to the Global North—a grave problem all over sub-Saharan Africa. Putting the inbound and outbound pattern in one equation, it appears as if South Africa is a regional (second-order Global South) core as far as inbound student mobility is concerned. Thus, inbound and outbound student mobility in South Africa do not speak of growing the global mix to promote academic excellence and competitiveness—the stated and expected goals of internationalisation. To summarise, a number of lacunae are present in the current internationalisation of South African universities project. Few faculty can boast higher degrees from universities abroad, much less so from top international universities. Internationalisation efforts have not succeeded in giving South African academe a boost towards impressive levels of research output. The number of international students is low. International student mobility does not speak of a global mix: inbound mobility is, to a large extent, an illustration of South Africa being a regional hub for Southern Africa, but outbound mobility still exhibits patterns of North American and Western European hegemony. Furthermore, given the low higher education enrolment levels in South Africa, there is scope for increasing South Africa’s outbound international student mobility. It is against this context that the candidature of Japan as an unutilised potential international partner for South African universities presents itself. 3.5 Scope of Partnership Between Private and Public Universities In South Africa, government resistance against the opening of private higher education institutions is rife (see James 2023), despite the Higher Education Act making provision for such institutions. However, despite resistance, according to the Department of Higher Education’s Register of Private Higher Education Institutions, at the time of writing (December 2023) there are 138 registered private higher education institutions in South Africa (RSA 2023). However, most of these institutions are small when measured in terms of enrolments. Only 7.7% of all higher education enrolments in South Africa are in the private higher education sector (UNESCO 2023). While at least some of these institutions do commendable work, in as far as they register well on international rankings (see Wolhuter & Diedericks 2024), they are excluded from the government’s funding systems (National Student Funding Aid Scheme (NSFAS) and Lushaka) and financial incentives for research production. That means to forge external links and stimulate research along that line, partnering with public and private universities in Japan seems like an attractive opportunity. In Japan, 50% of higher education students are enrolled in private higher education institutions (Badran, Baydoun & Hillman 2019). 3.6 The Candidature of Japan as Partner for Internationalisation by South African Universities This chapter has surveyed the global higher education revolution as one of the features of the contemporary world, the reasons for this revolution and its achievements and discontents. The internationalisation of universities as part of this revolution and the rationale for this internationalisation were discussed. The specific form that the global higher education revolution, and its facet of internationalisation, takes on in South Africa, as shaped by the contours of the South African contextual ecology, were touched upon. It can be concluded that there are indeed strong exigencies for South African universities to look anew and to drive with new vigour an internationalisation drive. 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Internationalization of Higher Education in South Africa: Unintended Consequences Brought from Contextual Contours. In: S Kamyab & RL Raby (eds). Unintended Outcomes of Internationalization in Higher Education: Comparative International Perspectives on the Impacts of Policy and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge, 283-297. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003189916-19 Wolhuter CC. 2023b. The Issue of Funding Higher Education: Global Patterns Compared to the South African Case. South African Journal of Higher Education, 37(8):24-40. https://doi.org/10.20853/37-6-5955 Wolhuter CC & Diedericks M. 2024. Die Imperatief vir Reikwydte en Diepte van Christelike Hoër Onderwys in die Wêreld van Vandag [The Imperative of Extent and Depth of Christian Higher Education in the World of Today]. Tydskrif vir Christelike Wetenskap. Forthcoming. Wolhuter CC & Jacobs L. 2021. The COVID-19 Pandemic: Streamlining or Capsizing the Global Higher Education Revolution. Perspectives in Education 39(1):291-303. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v39.i1.18 World Bank. 2016. World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: The World Bank. World Bank. 2023. World Development Indicators 2023. Washington, DC: The World Bank. World’s Top Exports. 2021. Australia’s Top Ten Exports. https://www.worldstopexports.com/australias-top-10-exports/ [2 December 2021]. Yang R. 2014. Going Global: Contemporary International Networking in Chinese Mainland Universities. Chinese Education and Society, 47(1):27-43. https://doi.org/10.2753/CED1061-1932470102 Chapter 4 The Impact of Japanese Universities in an African Context Asami Shimoda

National Institute of Technology Hiroshima College Japan 4.1 Introduction In the first two chapters, a survey of the state of international university partnerships (Chapter 1), the contextual background of South Africa and Japan and how these contexts define the scope of international partnerships between universities in the two countries (Chapter 2) were presented. These form the framework for the organised information provided in this chapter on the teaching and learning schemes, particularly scholarships and internship programmes, for people from the African region who are interested in studying in Japan. The chapter starts with a general overview of Japan’s international students acceptance policy and how the Japanese government handles the policy with recent data on international students studying in Japan from African regions. It also provides an overview of the scholarships that the Japanese government, local governmental organisations, private corporations and citizen groups offer for international students. After the general overview, this chapter then focuses on specialised programmes, including internship programmes, for people from the African region. 4.2 Background on the Policy for International Students in Japan The 300,000 International Students Plan (hereinafter referred to as the 300,000 Plan), which was announced by Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda in his policy speech in January 2008, aimed to accept 300,000 international students in Japan by 2020 (Matthias & Scott 2015). Six ministries developed the framework of this plan to work together and implement the measures comprehensively (MEXT 2010). These ministries were:

1. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT),

2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

3. Ministry of Justice,

4. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare,

5. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry and

6. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.

Figure 4.1: The number of international students who study in Japan (1978-2020). Source: JASSO 2020. Subsequently, according to the Annual Survey of Enrolment of International Students (JASSO 2020), also depicted in Figure 4.1, 312,214 international students were enrolled in Japan on 1 May 2019, which was one year ahead of the plan’s target year. Since the 1980s, Japan has been working to increase the number of international students studying there with a primary focus on students from Asia. For instance, in 1983, Japan announced its policy to accept 100,000 international students, called The 100,000 International Students Plan (hereafter referred to as the 100,000 Plan), and this number was achieved in 2003 (Kawaguchi 2019; Sakuma & Yonezawa 2019). Under the 100,000 Plan, international students were expected to return to their own countries after graduation. However, the 300,000 Plan, which the next government proposed, offered to hire international students in the Japanese labour market after graduation (Matthias & Scott 2015). Table 4.1 shows the principal measures of the 300,000 Plan, including the fifth measure stating that the motion of hiring international students after graduation has been accepted. Table 4.1: The principal measures of the 300,000 Plan

1. Invitation to study in Japan - Motivating students to study in Japan and the development of a one-stop service:

(1) Disseminating information about Japanese culture, society, and higher education.

(2) Developing a one-stop (centralised) service for those who wish to study in Japan.

2. Improving entrance examinations, admissions, and entry to Japan - Facilitating study in Japan:

(1) Improving the functions of universities to disseminate information related to study in Japan, such as entrance examinations through the Internet.

(2) Simplifying the examination process and shortening the examination period according to the extent of the stay period after entry into Japan.

3. Promotion of globalisation of universities - Creating attractive universities:

(1) Promoting the International Centre for Education and Research at universities.

(2) Increasing the number of courses offered in English.

4. Creating a host environment - Creating an environment where students can peacefully devote themselves to their studies:

(1) Improving university housing.

(2) Improving the Japanese government scholarship.

5. Promotion of acceptance of international students after completion of studies -Globalisation of society:

(1) Strengthening the support for job hunting for international students after graduation.

(2) Promoting job internships and the use of job cards.

Source: MEXT 2008 Regarding the origin regions of international students studying in Japan, there was a lack of diversity as shown in Table 4.2. Since 2008, the percentage of international students from other regions has remained low, while the percentage of international students from Asia has remained high. Table 4.2: The percentage of international students in Japan by region (2008-2020)

Region	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020
Asia	92.2	92.4	92.3	92.7	93.0	93.4	96.4
Europe	3.1	3.1	3.2	3.5	3.3	3.4	2.8
North America	1.9	1.9	1.8	1.4	1.3	1.1	0.7
Africa	0.9	0.8	0.8	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.7
Latin America	0.8	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.6	0.5	0.6
Region	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020
Middle East	0.7	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.7	0.5	0.4
Oceania	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.2
Others	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Source: JASSO 2008-2020 However, there has been an increase in the number of students from the African region as shown in Figure 4.2. In the Strategies for Accepting International Students to Capture Global Growth Report (MEXT 2013), regarding the promotion of accepting foreign students, Africa has been designated as a priority region for developing human resources that contribute to the national interest of economic growth, resources and corporate advancement.

Figure 4.2: The number of students from Africa (2008-2020). Source: JASSO 2008-2020 An analysis report of the 300,000 Plan (Meeting of Ministries Related to the 300,000 International Students Plan 2021) suggested post-300,000 Plan measures. Relevant ministries should continue to collaborate and cooperate for the acceptance of international students by paying close attention to the global trends in higher education resulting from the Coronavirus 2019 pandemic. Moreover, they should shift to a perspective that focuses on outcomes, such as retaining outstanding international students who have received a high-quality education in Japan, and building or deepening networks with international students who have returned to their own countries. This could strengthen friendly relationships with those countries. Even after achieving the 300,000 Plan, the Japanese government continues to take measures for international students who are interested in studying in Japan. 4.3 Overview of the Scholarships for International Students in Japan There are four types of scholarships for international students that are sponsored by different organisations:

1. The Japanese government,

2. Local government and local international associations,

3. Private foundations and

4. On-campus scholarships, tuition fee exemption or reduction systems.

Table 4.3 shows a summary of the scholarships that international students who wish to study in Japan can apply for before they arrive in Japan. The first section summarises what students can expect when applying for Japanese government scholarships through the MEXT scholarship specifically. This includes research students, teacher training students, undergraduate students, college of technology students, specialised training college students and Japanese studies students. The second section summarises what students can expect who apply for scholarships through any of the above four organisations. Table 4.4 shows the different eligibility requirements of each education level. Additionally, each scholarship that is sponsored by the aforementioned organisations has its own requirements. Therefore, it needs to be confirmed one by one. Apart from these, there are many scholarships that international students can apply for after arriving in Japan. Since there are many degree courses available in English (as shown in Table 4.5), it is necessary for international students to decide on the education level, university or academic major that they are interested in when applying for a scholarship. Table 4.5: The number of degree courses available in English

Major field	Universities (Undergraduate)	Graduate schools
Humanities	13	23
Social Science	22	116
Education	0	5
Natural Science	11	176
Engineering	24	463
Agriculture / Fisheries / Veterinary Medicine	3	82
Medical / Health Science	0	89
Arts	0	3
Comprehensive / Interdisciplinary	29	67
Other	12	95

Resource: JASSO 2021b (as of February 2020) Formerly, the information on studying in Japan was provided by both the Study in Japan Information Guide (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and the Study in Japan Portal Site (JASSO). However, to provide easily accessible information that meets the needs of applicants and students, the two websites were integrated and launched on 1 April 2019 as the Study in Japan website (JASSO 2021e). The Study in Japan website offers comprehensive information, including the advantages of studying in Japan, planning studies in Japan, life in Japan, job and career in Japan and networking (JASSO 2021e). Here are some visual samples taken from the website:

Figure 4.3: General information about Japan The website has general information on Japan such as the Japanese education system, living costs, accommodation, insurance and part-time work so that the students can get a clear picture of study life in Japan.

Figure 4.4: The planning flow chart Since there are many options for studying in Japan, the website provides step-by-step guidelines to help students decide which institution, academic major and scholarship to choose.

Figure 4.5: The search engine for schools Students can search the schools of their choice in this engine. They can also search for scholarships from the Scholarship for International Students in Japan list.

Figure 4.6: Events on study in Japan Students can interact with currently enrolled students through a Virtual Fair (both live and recorded sessions). 4.4 Arrangements for International Students from Africa As mentioned above, the Strategies for Accepting International Students to Capture Global Growth Report (MEXT 2013) presented priority areas, which are expected to contribute towards the future development of Japan. In 2014, based on this strategy, MEXT launched a programme called The Study in Japan Coordinator Project. This programme allocated coordinators who serve as playmakers in encouraging international students to study in Japan. In light of the 2017 administrative work reviews and the recommendations by the Panel on Promotion of the Acceptance of International Students, MEXT enhanced and expanded the Study in Japan Coordinator Project to carry out the Study-in-Japan Global Network Project since 2018. This was done to develop an all-Japan system for supporting international students that covered a range of activities from student enrolment to student recruitment and follow-ups after they returned to their own countries. Table 4.6 shows where the programme started and how it expanded with the list of coordinator universities and their offices. Table 4.6: List of coordinator universities and offices in each project

Study in Japan Coordinator Project	→	Study-in-Japan Global Network Project
Okayama University (Myanmar) Yangon office	→	Okayama University (ASEAN countries) Yangon office (Myanmar) Mandalay Office (Myanmar) Bangkok (Thailand)
Hokkaido University (sub-Saharan Africa) Lusaka office (Zambia)	→	Hokkaido University (sub-Saharan Africa) Lusaka office (Zambia) Nairobi office (Kenya)
The University of Tokyo (India) Bengaluru office	→	The University of Tokyo (Southwestern Asia) New Delhi office (India) Colombo office (Sri Lanka)
University of Tsukuba (Brazil) São Paulo office	→	University of Tsukuba (South America) São Paulo office (Brazil)
		Hokkaido University, University of Tsukuba, Niigata University (Russia and the CIS countries) Moscow office (Russia)
	Kyushu University (Middle East and North Africa) Cairo Office (Egypt) Ankara Office (Turkey)
	Japan Student Services Organization (Headquarters in Japan) Tokyo office (Japan)

Source: MEXT 2021a & 2021b For people who wish to study in Japan from sub-Saharan Africa, there are two local offices located in Lusaka, Zambia and Nairobi, Kenya managed by Hokkaido University. On the Study in Japan for Africa website (Hokkaido University 2021), students can obtain specific information about African regions (Figure 4.7), such as students belonging to sub-Saharan Africa who are currently studying at universities in Japan (Figure 4.8). This will allow the students to understand what studying in Japan is like based on the experiences of the currently enrolled students. The website also posts information about the upcoming school fairs (Table 4.7). School fairs used to be held in different places, however, due to the Coronavirus 2019 pandemic, online fairs are primarily being held.

Figure 4.7: Study in Japan for Africa website

Figure 4.8: Voices Table 4.7: List of school fairs

2015Sep.South AfricaUniversity of Pretoria2016Feb.TanzaniaUniversity of Dar es Salaam2016Oct.KenyaUniversity of Nairobi2017Feb.GhanaUniversity of Ghana2017Sep.EthopiaAddis Ababa University2018Feb.RwandaUniversity of Rwanda2018Sep.South AfricaUniversity of Cape Town2019Feb.UgandaHotel in Makerere city2019MaySouth AfricaHotel in Pretoria city2019Sep.KenyaEmbassy of Japan in Kenya2020Nov.GhanaHotel in Pretoria Accra cityMediaTheme2020May-Jul.OnlineStudy in Japan Online Fair in Cote d'Ivoire2020Aug.OnlineStudy in Japan Online Fair Mauritius2020Sep.OnlineStudy in Japan Online Fair in South Africa2020Sep.-Oct. OnlineStudy in Japan Online Fair in Madagascar2020Sep.-Oct. OnlineStudy in Japan Online Fair in Ethiopia2020Jan.Online[Webinar Series 1] Study Science, Technology,Engineering, and Mathematic (STEM) atundergradute in Japan2020Jan.Online[Webinar Series 2] Study Science, Technology,Engineering, and Mathematic (STEM) atundergradute in Japan2021Feb.Online[Webinar Series 3] Study Science, Technology,Engineering, and Mathematic (STEM) atundergradute in Japan2021Mar.OnlineSTUDY IN JAPAN WEBINAR 2021: GraduateStudies in Engineering, Science, Agriculture andTechnology2021JuneOnlineInformation Webinar | Undergraduate program atMeiji Gakuin University2021Aug.OnlineStudy in JAPAN Online Fair for Sub-SaharanAfrica 2021 Undergraduate, Graduate Program2021Aug.OnlineStudy in JAPAN Online Fair for Sub-SaharanAfrica 2021 Graduate Program2021Sep.OnlineStudy in JAPAN Online Fair for Sub-SaharanAfrica 2021 Graduate ProgramStudy in Japan Online FairDateVenueDateStudy in Japan School Fair 4.5 The ABE Initiative, Pilots of African Business and SDGs Global Leader Programme The African Business Education Initiative for Youth (ABE Initiative) is a programme that offers opportunities for African students to study master’s courses at Japanese universities and experience internships at Japanese companies (JICA 2019b). It aims to foster young students who can contribute to the development of industries in Africa and be a ‘navigator’ for Japanese firms’ operations in Africa (JICA 2019b). This programme was implemented in 2014, and of the 1,219 students who came to Japan, 775 students had already completed the programme as of April 2019. The uniqueness of this programme not only lies in opportunities to study master’s courses but also to experience internship programmes in Japan, as shown in Figure 4.9. At graduate schools, the students under this programme study engineering (30%), economics and management (26%), agriculture (12%), information and communication technology (9%), politics and public policy (6%), science (4%), medicine and healthcare (2%) and other fields (11%) (JICA 2019b). As of 2019, 548 companies were registered for the internship. The largest numbers of registered companies in the industry sector are manufacturing (29%), services (18%), wholesale and retail (14%), information and communications (10%) and academic research and specialty technology services (9%) companies (JICA 2019b).

Figure 4.9: ABE Initiative programme overview. Source: JICA 2019b The basic qualifications and requirements for this programme are:

• Nationality: Citizens of one of the 54 African countries,

• Age: Less than 40 years and

• Educational background: Bachelor’s degree (or equivalent to at least 16 years of academic background).

Depending on the applicant, the qualifications and requirements may differ, therefore, the applicants need to obtain detailed information such as general information, application forms and university lists. The difference between this programme and other programmes is that they have different organisers. This programme is organised by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and interested individuals need to contact the JICA overseas offices (Table 4.8). These offices provide information on applications, universities and internship companies. Table 4.8: List of JICA overseas offices

Angola	Democratic Republic of the Congo	Kenya	Niger	Sudan
Benin	Djibouti	Madagascar	Nigeria	Tanzania
Botswana	Egypt	Malawi	Rwanda	Tunisia
Burkina Faso	Ethiopia	Morocco	Senegal	Uganda
Cameroon	Gabon	Mozambique	South Africa	Zambia
Cote d’Ivoire	Ghana	Namibia	South Sudan	Zimbabwe

Resource: JICA 2019b JICA also manages the scholarship called the SDGs Global Leader Program. According to the SDGs Global Leader Course Brochure (JICA 2019a), this programme aims to foster junior or mid-level government officials, academics and leading human resources in various fields. The programme facilitates this aim by providing a Master’s or Doctoral programme in universities and internship programmes at companies in Japan. This programme is for 7 regions in the world, but as Table 4.9 shows, the numbers for Africa are high. It means the opportunity for people from Africa is more open. Those who are interested in this programme need to contact the JICA overseas office, same as ABE Initiative. Table 4.9: Enrolment Capacity by Region (Tentative)

Region	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
Southeast Asia	24	32	33	43	43
Pacific	17	20	25	25	25
South Asia	7	8	5	5	5
Middle East and Europe	0	1	3	3	3
Central and East Asia	4	4	7	7	7
Africa	1	59	60	75	75
Latin and Caribbean	2	11	10	10	10

Resource: JICA 2019a One can hear directly from international students who are currently studying in or have completed those programmes from Japanese universities (Table 4.10). All relevant information is available on the JICA website. Table 4.10: Information resources of ABE Initiative & SDGs Global Leader Program

The ABE Initiative Program	SDGs Global Leader Program
JICA Website Master’s Degree and Internship Program of African Business Education Initiative for Youth (ABE Initiative) (JICA, 2021a) https://www.jica.go.jp/english/countries/africa/internship.html Brochure Development of Industrial Human Resources in Africa ABE Initiative (JICA, 2019b) https://www.jica.go.jp/english/countries/africa/c8h0vm00008orbbu-att/abe_1907_en.pdf	JICA Website SDGs Global Leader (JICA, 2021b) https://www.jica.go.jp/dsp-chair/english/dsp/course/content/sdgs_global_leader.html Brochure Course Brochure: SDGs Global Leader (JICA, 2019a) https://www.jica.go.jp/dsp-chair/english/dsp/course/content/ku57pq00002ma5q9-att/course_brochure.pdf

4.6 Collaboration Between Japanese and South African Universities Part of the international outreach of Japanese universities has been to South Africa, for example, the recent establishment of the South Africa-Japan Centre for Collaboration at Stellenbosch University, South Africa (Stellenbosch University 2022). This centre represents the culmination of a long-standing collaboration between Stellenbosch University and Japan reaching back over twenty years. The objective of the Stellenbosch University-Japanese Centre (SUJC) is to:

• promote South Africa-Japan academic relations by encouraging Japanese Studies at Stellenbosch University,

• encourage teaching and research collaboration between Stellenbosch University and Japanese universities,

• Host educational and cultural events for the broader community and

• Collaborate with other similar centres in Africa and internationally.

Since 2022, this partnership between Japanese and South African universities has been ongoing, facilitated by the South African National Research Foundation (NRF) (see NRF 2022). However, in their thorough review of partnerships between South African universities and universities abroad from 2011-2021, Heleta and Jithoo (2023) conclude that such partnerships continue to be dominated by European partner institutions, and as far as partners outside of Europe feature, these tend to be limited to Brazil, Russia, China, India and Nigeria. Japan does not register. 4.7 Conclusion Japan has been working to increase the number of international students since the 1980s. The 100,000 Plan was announced in 1983 by the Japanese government, but it primarily focused on the Asian region. Subsequently, the 300,000 Plan was announced in 2008 with the aim to accept 300,000 international students by 2020. Even though the Japanese government took the policies, most international students studying in Japan still tend to be from Asia. However, various efforts are being made to increase the number of students from Africa such as setting up the Study in Japan Coordinators system specifically for African regions and establishing programmes that target people from Africa. Despite an impressive array of engagements in Africa and some engagement in South Africa, at present, Japan is not a key contact point for South African institutions in their internationalisation drives. This contrasts with the promise of internationalisation, as explained in previous chapters, when comparing Japanese and South African higher education and societal contexts. In the next chapters, several case studies will showcase Japanese universities’ involvement in Africa, serving as a model for both Japanese and South African universities considering and leading Japanese-South African partnerships. 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Development of Industrial Human Resources in Africa ABE Initiative. https://www.jica.go.jp/english/countries/africa/c8h0vm00008orbbu-att/abe_1907_en.pdf [5 December 2021]. JICA. 2021a. Master’s Degree and Internship Program of African Business Education Initiative for Youth (ABE Initiative). https://www.jica.go.jp/english/countries/africa/internship.html [5 December 2021]. JICA. 2021b. SDGs Global Leader. https://www.jica.go.jp/dsp-chair/english/dsp/course/content/sdgs_global_leader.html [5 December 2021]. Kawaguchi J.2019. An International Comparative Study on Institutions and Issues Supporting International Students in Africa. Unpublished. Matthias H & Scott M. 2015. Japan’s Measures to Attract International Students and the Impact of Student Mobility on the Labor Market. Journal of International and Advanced Japanese Studies, 7, March:241-551. Meeting of Ministries Related to the 300,000 International Students Plan. 2021. Analyses Report of the 300,000 International Students Plan. Unpublished Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). 2008. Outline of the 300,000 International Students Plan. https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/culture/hito/ryu/pdfs/30k_k.pdf [5 December 2021]. MEXT. 2010. Outline of the Students Exchange System – Study in Japan and Abroad 2010. https://www.mext.go.jp/component/english/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2011/12/14/1303740_1.pdf [5 December 2021]. MEXT. 2013. The Strategies for Accepting International Students to Capture Global Growth (Report) https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/ryugaku/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2013/12/24/1342726_2.pdf [5 December 2021]. MEXT. 2021a. Study in Japan Coordinator Project https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/ryugaku/1368683.html [5 December 2021]. MEXT. 2021b. Study in Japan Global Network Project. https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highered/title02/detail02/1373922.html [5 December 2021]. National Research Foundation (NRF) (South Africa). 2022. Launch of the South Africa – Japan Partnership (STI) Booklet. https://www.nrf.ac.za/launch-of-the-south-africa-japan-sti-partnership-booklet/ [7 January 2024]. Sakuma A & Yonezawa A. 2019. Fine-Tuning Japan’s Strategy to Attract African Students. University World News, 12 December. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20191210135737247 [5 December 2021]. Stellenbosch University. 2022. Stellenbosch University Japan Centre Launched. http://www.sun.ac.za/english/Lists/news/DispForm.aspx?ID=9386 [1 January 2024]. Chapter 5 Twenty Years of the Master’s Programme Initiative Among Hiroshima University, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the University of Zambia for Integration of Theory and Practice Takuya Baba

Professor Hiroshima University Japan takuba@hiroshima-u.ac.jp Natsuko Furukawa

Researcher Hiroshima University Japan fnatsuko@hiroshima-u.ac.jp 5.1 Introduction In the first four chapters, the growing internationalisation of universities worldwide was first discussed, followed by an analysis of the education and societal contexts of Japan and South Africa. From that analysis it was concluded that considerable scope for international partnerships between South African and Japanese universities exists. The preceding chapter surmised that there is a dearth of such partnerships at present, notwithstanding the promise that such partnerships contain. Japanese universities have recently been involved with a number of African countries. This chapter is the first to examine a sample of international partnership projects as an objective lesson for South African and Japanese universities to learn from. 5.2 Background on the Zambia Special Education Programme (ZSEP) In the 1980s, the Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA) budget was second to the United States of America (USA), which was its highest record in history. Despite this, there were not enough human resources engaged in international cooperation activities. These human resources comprised those whose activities were related to international cooperation and worked in multilateral international cooperation agencies such as families of the United Nations, bilateral international cooperation agencies like the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), international cooperation NGOs and private companies. In response, the Japanese government decided to establish graduate schools of international cooperation in national universities. They were Nagoya University (1990), Kobe University (1992) and Hiroshima University (1994). In Japan, there are three categories of universities: national, public and private universities in terms of establishers. The graduate school of international cooperation within Hiroshima University included education research specialisation, which reflected the university’s history. Hiroshima University was established after World War II by integrating several colleges of different origins. One of them is a Higher Normal School (Koutou-Shihan Gakko) which trains teachers at high schools and has been regarded as the centre of teacher education in the western part of Japan. Thus, this graduate school reflected a rich background by sustaining many researchers in the education research field. After the report by the Evaluation Committee for Chartering of Universities in 1998, each university considered the establishment of a professional graduate school aimed at producing highly professional human resources. The above three graduate schools in particular considered incorporating this practice-based curriculum, which reflected the unique characteristics of education for international cooperation. One possibility to set up such an education might be to integrate volunteer activity and graduate school education. At that time, Professor Shuichi Nakayama, the founder of this special education programme, wrote in the report of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) research fund (Nakayama 2001-2002): This research intends to explore the measures of systematising the education programme within the graduate school of international cooperation, which aims at growing the human resources in correspondence with the need and expectation of the international community and integrates a practical activity in collaboration with international assistance organisations such as JICA. Owing to the JSPS research from 2001-2002, some field surveys were conducted on the integration of volunteer activities and graduate school education in the USA and the United Kingdom (UK) and some meetings were held with the JICA-JOCV office. The Japan Overseas Cooperative Volunteers (JOCV) oversees the dispatch of volunteers all over the world, and is a section of JICA, which is in charge of official development assistance. This research effort boosted the beginning of the Zambia Special Education Programme (ZSEP) in 2002 whose first call for participation was announced in the same year. This programme aims to grow human resources by integrating the practicality of volunteer activity and the reflectivity and scientific nature of education in graduate school and nurturing a broad understanding of international cooperation and professional skills. This integration of volunteer activity and graduate school education had the following interpretation from the participants’ perspective: some of those who were interested and participated in volunteer activities of JOCV would have wished to pursue a further degree in graduate school before or after such participation and if participation in JOCV occurred after such education, such a person considered it necessary to acquire first an ability to contribute significantly to the recipient country. Alternatively, if the participation would be before acquiring education, the questions and sense of issues, which were formed through international cooperation activities, prompted such a person to find solutions for the questions and to grow a professional ability which is required in the career of international cooperation. In fact, those who proceeded to study further after their participation in JOCV were 7.1% (National Institution For Youth Education 2021:38). Against this situation, the special education programme had the unique characteristics of combining volunteer activity and graduate school education. 5.3 Activities of ZSEP 5.3.1 Stakeholders and Their Roles Hiroshima University started ZSEP in collaboration with JICA-JOCV in 2002. In this programme, we dispatched master’s students as volunteer teachers to a newly established school in Zambia. The dispatched students were expected both to become volunteer teachers and conduct research as graduate students. They developed their professional abilities and comprehension of issues through such engagement. As of September 2021, approximately 40 students had participated in the past 20 years. In addition to the standard curriculum for all graduate school students, ZSEP aimed to attain the above mission through volunteer activities and field surveys. Participants were given an opportunity to develop the necessary skills. Moreover, the JOCV could steadily obtain high-quality human resources and professionalise its activity. The participants could acquire both skills and experience, which were required as highly professional resources through integrating and reflecting on both activities. There were four stakeholders besides the students and the schools of assignment:

• JOCV-JICA has overseen the entire process, from selecting and dispatching ZSEP participants as JOCV members to dispatching professors of Hiroshima University as tutors to monitor the volunteers’ activities and progress in the field.

• Hiroshima University monitored the activities of ZSEP participants through email and field visits. It established a system of credit approval for internship and fieldwork based on the activity and sanction of leave of absence.

• The Ministry of Education in Zambia secured the school for volunteer teachers and, in some cases, a teacher’s house. They also gave permission to train teachers during the vacation period.

• University of Zambia (UNZA) gave advice to the ZSEP participants as a local tutor and implemented a joint seminar with Hiroshima University since 2007 by providing the venue and manpower. In this context, Hiroshima University established a mutual agreement with UNZA in 2004. As anticipated, they provided impromptu support whenever necessary.

5.3.2 Roles of Graduate Students and Their Assigned Schools The ZSEP participants were master’s students as well as JOCV programme participants. As master’s students, they acquired the necessary credits before and after being dispatched to Zambia. During their stay in Zambia, they conducted a field survey and wrote a master’s thesis based on the collected data. Furthermore, for the joint seminar, they held meetings with UNZA lecturers regarding the preparation and acquired experience in managing research seminars. As volunteer teachers, they conducted mathematics and/or science lessons and contributed to educational activities in the school assigned to them. They also conducted extracurricular activities based on their interest, ability, and the school’s requirement. If they had interest and time, they could participate in the in-service training during the term break. The dispatch of volunteers was based on requests from the recipient country and school. The school arranged for the volunteers to work and, in some cases, provided housing for them. 5.3.3 Time Flow From Application and Dispatch to Graduation Prospective students interested in ZSEP submitted an application form for an entrance examination to the university. A typical case is shown below, but all cases do not exactly follow this schedule as it depends on each student’s situation. When applying for participation in the JOCV, the university submitted a recommendation letter to JICA-JOCV. However, if this application was sent before entering the university, the prospective participant consulted with a prospective supervisor in the graduate school and the university submitted a recommendation letter on their behalf for the ZSEP. When participants obtained the passage after document and interview screenings like the general applicants, they submitted December as their preference for the timing of dispatch. The number of JOCV volunteers dispatched was more than 1,000 per year before COVID-19. They were dispatched three times a year after three months of training. After entering the graduate school, the participants take the necessary courses and prepare a research plan. They participate in pre-training for JOCV around September and are then dispatched around December. They work as volunteer teachers in a school and conduct a field survey. Two years later, after completing their volunteer term, participants return to Hiroshima University close to December, submit a master’s thesis to the university in September, and are admitted for completion of the programme in the same month. The standard period of the programme is three and a half years. The following eight units are necessary to complete the programme and the participants are given a certificate of completion in addition to a master’s degree diploma:

• Internship (2 units)

• Fieldwork (2 units)

• Special study (4 units including the dispatch period)

5.4 Achievement of ZSEP 5.4.1 Education (As of August 2021) Since the beginning of 2002 and until August 2021, ZSEP has dispatched 42 students (36 long-term and six short-term). Among the 36 participants, 33 had completed the course and obtained a master’s diploma. Two were scheduled to complete the course in September 2021, and one has been dispatched. Five proceeded to the doctoral course and obtained Ph.D degrees. Their assignment work in school was basically mathematics and science education. Students sent on a short term are assigned to the Ministry of Finance and Planning, Education office or UNZA. Table 5.3: Dispatch area

Province	Central	Copperbelt	North-western	Southern
Schools	19	2	2	14

Figure 5.1: Map of assigned schools in Zambia 5.4.2 Research UNZA and Hiroshima University have jointly been holding a research seminar since 2007. The ZSEP participants make a presentation in this seminar and are engaged in its management. Zambian graduate from Hiroshima University, Dr. Nachiunde, has been representing UNZA in this workshop since 2014, and some graduate students of UNZA have joined to help with the preparation. Being the only presentation opportunity in the education research field, it is highly valued in UNZA. So far, the total number of participants is 845 and presentations total 205. Among them, 53 presentations were given by Hiroshima University and 38 presentations by students. Unfortunately, this seminar was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2021). In the past 20 years, 34 master’s theses and five doctoral theses have been accepted. The theme was related to teacher education, students’ conceptions, educational environments and teaching-learning materials. Table 5.4: Doctoral dissertations

No.	Title	Name	Date
1.	A Study on Situational Analysis of Zambian Science Education and Development of Lesson Analysis Designed to the Science Classes	Kenji Matsubara	2009. 3
2.	Lesson Development in Mathematics Based on Substantial Learning Environment (SLE) in the Republic of Zambia	Nagisa Nakawa	2011. 3
3.	A Study on the Role of Reflection in the Pedagogical Competence Development of Zambian Mathematics Teachers: Focusing on Qualitative Analysis Using Lesson Diary	Chikara Kinone	2012. 3
4.	Study on Pupils’ Calculation Ability at Basic Education in Zambia -Through the Diagnostic Evaluation Focusing on Validity and Discriminability	Toyomi Uchida	2012. 3
5	Principles of Curriculum Development for Connecting Science and Mathematics: Through the Case of Secondary Education in Zambia	Masato Kosaka	2015. 3

Table 5.5: Master’s theses

No	Title	Name	Date
1.	The Roles and Significance of Lesson Study in Science Educational Development in the Context of the Basic Education in Zambia	Kenji Matsubara	2005. 3
2.	A Case Study of Teachers Centre as International Educational Cooperation in Southern Province, Zambia	Masaaki Taniguchi	2006. 3
3.	The Present Status and Possibilities of “Zone Education Support Team” in Zambia	Toyomi Uchida	2006. 3
4.	The Present Status and Possibilities of the Mathematics “Activity-Based” Approach in Basic School of Zambia	Chikara Kinone	2006. 3
5.	The Issues and Actual Situation of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Sahara Africa - Role of Information about HIV/AIDS in Zambia	Yuji Tanabe	2007. 3
6.	Difficulty in Learning Geometrical Concepts in Zambian Basic Education	Mami Ishida	2007. 3
7.	Research Concerning Pupils’ Cultural Situation in Upper Basic Education in Zambia	Atsushi Tsujimoto	2008. 3
8.	Teaching Experiments for Understanding Fraction in Upper Basic Education in Zambia	Yoshihide Arima	2008. 3
No	Title	Name	Date
9.	Research on Lesson Development in Mathematics Education Based on ‘Substantial Learning Environment (SLE)’ in Zambia	Nagisa Shibuya	2008. 3
10.	A Case Study of Mathematics Lesson Analyses in the Basic Education of Zambia - Focusing on the Linguistic Aspect of Interaction between Teacher and Students	Takuto Ikeya	2008. 9
11.	Effective School Management at Basic Schools in Zambia	Keiko Fukuda	2009. 3
12.	Acquisition Process of Basic Mathematics Competency in Zambia	Ai Sasaki	2009. 3
13.	The Role of Social Context in Pupils’ Understanding of Multiplication and Division in Zambia	Kyoko Yamada	2010. 9
14.	Research on Geometry Education Applying Ethnomathematics in Upper Basic Education in Zambia	Mitsuhiro Kimura	2012. 3
15.	Research on Teaching Materials about Proportional Reasoning in Upper Basic Education in Zambia	Fumiya Shimamoto	2012. 3
16.	Teaching and Learning Physics Through Small Step Approach: A Case of a School in Central-Zambia	Haruna Nakazato	2012. 3
No	Title	Name	Date
17.	Scholl Improvement Process of Basics Schools in Zambia	Itaru Shibuya	2012. 3
18.	Connecting Function Lesson with Physics at High School Level in Zambia: Focusing on Context Dependency	Masato Kosaka	2012. 3
19.	The Aspect of Understanding on Mathematical Words Problems in Upper Basic Education in Zambia	Tomoe Harada	2013. 3
20.	The Reconstruction of “Learner-Centred” Mathematics at Basic Education Level in Zambia	Toshikazu Nonaka	2013. 3
21.	The Differences of Basic Literacy and Numeracy Skills Among Primary Schools in Zambia	Yuta Yamanaka	2014. 3
22.	The Effect of Science Lesson at Secondary Level in Zambia—Focusing on Affect and Cognition	Nozomi Takeuchi	2015. 3
23.	Factors Behind School Girls’ Pregnancy and Reasons of Their Return or Non-Return to School in Kabwe, Zambia: From the Perspectives of Pregnant Girls, Parents, Teachers, Students and Ministry of Education	Junko Kabashima	2015. 3
No	Title	Name	Date
24.	Development of Methods to Analyse the Mathematics Curriculum in Zambia in terms of Representational Modes—A Case of Concept of Function	Satoshi Mashiko	2016. 3
25.	Research about Students’ Understanding of Mole Concept in High School—Focus on Quantitative Relationship	Shunichiro Watanabe	2016. 9
26.	Research on Acquisition of Number Sense in Zambian Mathematics Education	Tatsuya Higashi	2017.3
27.	Study of the Effect of Visual Materials for the Particle Concept Understanding in the Science Classroom in Zambia	Yu Takahashi	2018.3
28.	Examining the Number Concept Through Operating Numbers at Primary Schools in Zambia	Azusa Takagi	2018.9
29.	Linguistic Effects in Acquiring Calculation Ability in Zambia	Misako Hata	2019.3
30.	Secondary School Teachers’ Belief Formation through Interaction with Teachers and Students in Zambia: Using an Ethnographic Approach	Kosei Usuda	2019.9
31.	Research on Nurturing STEM Literacy in Zambia	Mamoru Tsurudome	2021.3
32.	Teacher’s Use of Life Experience in the Mathematical	Yoshinori Takahashi	2021.3
No	Title	Name	Date
33.	A Study on the Stage of Acquisition of the Decimal Number Concept of Zambian Primary School Students	Gaku Seshimo	2021.3
34.	Analysis About Zambia Secondary Science Textbook—Perspective from Learning Material Function and Teaching Material Function	Shoki Ogawa	2021.9

5.4.3 Further Impact of the Programme 5.4.3.1 Collaboration with the Ministry and JICA While in the process of implementing ZSEP, Hiroshima University established a strong relationship with JICA, especially with the technical cooperation project and the Ministry of Education in Zambia. There were many activities among the three bodies, including: Dispatch of short-term experts

• 2013: Hideo Ikeda and Takuya Baba for supporting curriculum revision in mathematics and science

• 2013: Issei Maeda and Kazuyuki Kambara

• 2014: Kinya Shimizu for “Strengthening Teachers’ Performance and Skills through School-Based Continuing Professional Development” Project (2011-2015)

Launching of journal Assisted in launching the Journal of Zambia Teacher Professional Growth published by the Ministry and contributed some articles as a part of master’s research. Joint presentations Jointly presented in the World Association of Lesson Study (WALS) 5.4.3.2 Acceptance of JICA Training in the Zambia Education Sector In extension of the above relationship, there were requests for training programmes. There are two categories of training programmes. The first is called country-specific training. This programme targets a specific country, which in this case is Zambia. Since 2002, as a relationship was established with the Ministry of Education in Zambia, we corresponded on various topics within the field of education. The second category is called thematic training. This training focuses on a specific theme with various countries participating in it. Since several countries participated in the training at the same time, they considered the theme across the country border. The details were as follows: Country-specific training (in collaboration with technical cooperation projects) “Improvement of lesson study” course

• Three trainees (from 6-12 December 2009)

“Improvement of curriculum revision ability in mathematics and science education” course

• Five trainees (from 23 November – 7 December 2010)

“Method of developing teaching-learning materials in Zambian primary and secondary schools” course

• Six trainees (Mathematics 1) (from 18 November – 8 December 2012)

• Six trainees (Science 1) (from 11 October – 1 November 2013)

• Nine trainees (Mathematics 2) (from 3-21 November 2014)

• Nine trainees (Science 2) (from 5-23 October 2015)

“Promotion of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in mathematics and science through collaboration between teacher pre-service education courses and attached schools” course

• Ten trainees (from 21 September – 4 October 2016)

“Improvement of lesson skills based on PCK” course

• Twenty trainees (from 4-31 October 2017)

• Twelve trainees (from 9 October – 2 November 2018)

Thematic training “Curriculum development of primary mathematics” course

• Two trainees (from 15 May – 8 June 2019)

• Four trainees (from 29 Octpber 2019 – 18 February 2020, online basis)

“School-based learning improvement and education administration support” course

• Two trainees (from 16 November – 7 December 2018)

• Two trainees (from 24 October – 16 November 2019)

Through these trainings, we developed a relationship with the Ministry of Education in Zambia and revisited the issues within the education sector. Through this, we developed a deep understanding of the situation in Zambia. 5.4.3.3 Acceptance of JICA Research Project (2018-2021) Education quality is measured by scores, where an increment tends to be interpreted as an improvement. There is a tendency to direct attention towards the results, so much so that difficult problems and their solutions receive less attention. This quality cannot be attained through repetition of the exercises. In this context, it is imperative to examine educational quality analytically, thus necessitating an educational activity assessment. The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) consisted of 16 countries that cooperated in undertaking integrated research and training activities (SACMEQ 2019). It had conducted four assessments of mathematics and reading achievement in its member countries. With time, the number of participating countries kept rising: 7 in SACMEQ I in 1999, 14 in SACMEQ II in 2004, 15 in SACMEQ III in 2011 and 15 in SACMEQ IV in 2015. Zambia has been participating in SACMEQ since 1999, but consistently recorded poor performance. For example, 67.3% of Zambian sixth grade students did not even reach the category “Basic Numeracy” in SACMEQ II (Hungi, Makuwa, Ross, Saito, Dolata, Van Cappelle, Paviot & Vellien 2010). Since numeracy is the foundation for further mathematics and science, it forms an essential component of the human resources needed for the middle- and long-term development of society. Therefore, the Ministry of General Education in Zambia prioritised numeracy and literacy (Ministry of Education, 1996; Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013a, b; Ministry of National Development Planning, 2017). Accordingly, the JICA research project (2018-2021) was started in 2018 with the objective of developing assessment tools to diagnose the pupils’ level of numeracy competence and then develop intervention tools for improvement (Baba, et al., 2019). The team consisted of Japanese and Zambian members, totalling 16. The six members of the Japanese team were either graduates of ZSEP or engaged in activities related to Zambian educational issues through research and work. The 10 members of the Zambian team included one lecturer, six researchers, two research assistants and one liaison officer from the Ministry. The six researchers were previously master’s degree students in UNZA in mathematics education. The team shared an understanding of the issues when the project began. While many developing countries are still struggling to improve the quality of education, these problems still seem invincible. In response to this, the JICA research project in Zambia (2018-2021) on mathematics education was selected as a case study to show how the research could provide a new approach to such problems. A research team was formed between Hiroshima University and UNZA as both universities have been working together in this field for the past 20 years. Through four cycles of field surveys in 2018 and 2019, the team developed assessment tools from the perspectives of developmental stages (Clements & Sarma 2010, 2013), structuration in mathematical competence (Mulligan & Michelmore 2009, 2013) and types of representation (Roberts 2015). Such influence was accelerated by international assessment because high performance could be interpreted as a high-quality curriculum, and adoption of such a curriculum may occur without considering contextual impact (Meyer & Katie 2014). In this context, curriculum development and international education assessment may have the following issues:

• Can international education assessment properly measure the focus of the curriculum in the respective country?

• Can the respective countries utilise the results of international assessments for curriculum improvement?

Curriculum experts in their respective countries were expected to review these issues. However, in the context of international assistance, curriculum issues received relatively less attention than enrolment, gender gaps and the gap between urban and rural areas. More specifically, the fragility of curriculum experts and studies could be pointed out in developing countries. Curriculum experts were needed to survey the status of children and classrooms and develop prescriptions accordingly. In short, we needed to acquire local curriculum experts and accumulate knowledge and experience (Baba & Nakai 2011). The academic discipline of ‘mathematics’ was typically regarded as a universal subject, and thus, its international assessment is generally accepted globally. In fact, the same tool was often used to measure mathematics performance in different contexts and to introduce curricula from developed countries (Jacobsen 1996). However, discussions were held during the 1980s before the international assessment movement occurred. For example, Nebres (1988) pointed out that most countries had adopted the universal mathematics curriculum, regardless of the context. Other examples included discussions on ethnomathematics (D’Ambrosio 1986) and learning mathematics as a second language (Berry 1985), which addressed fundamental problems regarding children learning mathematics in the same way in different countries. In recent years, Cai and Howson (2012) stated that each country’s curriculum has been endangered by such an assessment. Naturally, the cultural context of a particular country played an important role in the way pupils learnt mathematics. Accordingly, mathematics education research should consider not only the knowledge of the subject but also the cultural and language aspects of that country, for which mathematics curriculum experts are required. While studying the nature of children’s learning and educational intervention within classrooms, they are expected to produce professional knowledge embedded with the particularities of that country, which is created within the local context. Thus, culture is necessary for endogenous curriculum development (Baba 2014). Such knowledge creation requires professional discussion based on the data and evidence. 5.4.3.4 Collaboration with UNZA In conclusion, we acquired JSPS research funds and conducted a field survey several times. As a part of these studies, we invited them to Japan and provided them with opportunities to visit schools. Through this occasion, both the Japanese and Zambian sides developed a common understanding and sense of issues regarding the situation in Zambia. Additionally, we invited two scholars, Hambokomaa in 2007 and Nkhata in 2017, to Hiroshima University as visiting professors. We had an intensive discussion during their stay and developed reliable personal relationships, especially with Nhkata, who is currently a Zambia team leader in the research project. Moreover, the professors at Hiroshima University visited Zambia and UNZA once a year to monitor students who participated in ZSEP. Since August 2007, we have held the UNZA-HU joint workshop during this visit. 5.5 External Evaluation of the ZSEP 5.5.1 Briefing Sessions on ZSEP Progress To date, we have conducted two briefing sessions on the progress of ZSEP. The first was in December 2009 and the second was in January 2015. Both were held at the Campus Innovation Centre, Tokyo. In the first briefing session, one ex-participant each in mathematics and science education made a presentation. A symposium was held with participants including ex-participants, JOCV officials, outside experts and professors at Hiroshima University in charge of this programme. They exchanged opinions on the programme’s output and issues. In the second briefing session, Hiroshima University presented longitudinal research results regarding the output and issues, and four categories of professional career development models. One ex-participant and one graduate student in the programme presented the output of the activity. Furthermore, we invited professors from Hokkaido University of Education, Kansei Gakuin University and Hiroshima University as participants in the symposium and discussed the future possibility of collaboration between JICA-JOCV and graduate school education. 5.5.2 Media Coverage

• October 2020: Chugoku Shinbun, Former JICA volunteer shares his experiences in Zambia with primary students in Tojo.

• December 2019: Weekly PRESSNET, Two Graduate Students from Hiroshima University Dispatched to Zambia as JICA Volunteers.

• 31 October 2016: Chugoku Shinbun, IDEC of Hiroshima University has supported the spread of “Lesson Study” in Zambia in collaboration with JICA (Dispatch experts and JICA Training in IDEC.)

• 15 February 2010: Times of Zambia, Zambian teachers adopt Japan’s problem-solving approach.

• 11 February 2010: Times of Zambia, New ways of teaching maths and science coming soon.

• June 2008: Chugoku Shinbun, Support in Africa- Two Roles in Zambia: teaching as a JICA volunteer and researching as a master’s student from IDEC

5.5.3 Evaluation Report by MEXT, Japan In 2010, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan conducted research and published the report, Experiential Research Regarding the University Education Programme for Global Human Resource Development. It consisted of three chapters:

• Chapter one: Integration of overseas volunteer activity and education programme

• Chapter two: Integration of internship in international organisations such as the United Nations and education programme

• Chapter three: Higher education institutions and international organisations, and introduced cases of 12 universities. ZSEP was introduced in the first chapter.

Some points of observation regarding all these programmes were as follows:

• Acquisition of high-level English ability

• Acquisition of clear professional skills

• Provision of first-hand experiences in a developing country

• Provision of opportunity to contact with officers of international cooperation organisations

• Correspondence with development of interests of individual student

ZSEP contains all these points. The programme is conducted in English and incorporated with JOCV activity at a basic school in Zambia. During the term of dispatch, they conducted a lesson in mathematics and/or science and made a presentation on their study in the UNZA-HU joint seminar, which requires professional skills and a high-level English-speaking ability. In fact, they were involved in the process of preparing joint seminars by contacting and discussing with UNZA lecturers, the officers of the Ministry of Education and JICA experts. Throughout this programme, they require professional skills in graduate school education and volunteer work. They set up a research theme depending on their interests and are advised by the supervisors. Among the 12 universities in the report, ZSEP by Hiroshima University had a significant and clear vision for the participants’ future careers. As this was an important characteristic, Hiroshima University and Nagoya University were listed as model cases. It was highly appreciated that ZSEP of Hiroshima University is a good combination of participation in the JOCV programme and acquisition of a master’s degree, which enables simultaneous acquisition of experience and degree. 5.6 Conclusion ZSEP began in 2003 with the aim of growing human resources in the field of international education cooperation. During this period, the programme attracted students from all over Japan and produced approximately 40 resources. Human resource development could not be fully achieved at the end of graduate school education. Rather, it is important that the education programme aims to form some basic skills, perspectives and consciousness as professionals to continue growing in the long-term. The results of this growth could only be seen after 10 or 20 years. Fortunately, the twentieth anniversary was in 2022, which we celebrated to reflect on these years. Additionally, this programme also contributed to another outcome, which became very important for us: not only had there been a growth in students but also a significant growth in lecturers and institutions. The joint seminar, which was started as a forum for the students to make a presentation, contributed to the promotion of research activities at UNZA. JICA research project invented a new research method by integrating issues discovered by both universities and research we had conducted. A new approach in mathematics education research, which considered Zambian students and their background, deepened the common and traditional solutions of repeating calculation problems and solutions which focused on the structural understanding of numbers. Finally, the context of international cooperation in the 2020s has changed tremendously compared. Globalisation progressed, and many developing countries are in transition. Some of these countries, especially Asian countries, have achieved economic development. A few African countries have also achieved a certain level of development. Furthermore, the recent COVID-19 pandemic has made an impact on the world. There was a huge drop in international travel and trade in 2020 and 2021. It certainly will recover someday, but it may not be the same. During this period, the utilisation of information and communications technology (ICT) has progressed considerably and this progress will continue. This is already part of our infrastructure, promoting the second point of structural transformation. References Baba T. 2014. International Cooperation Approach Focusing on Process Towards Endogenous Development in Mathematics Education, Journal of JSME Mathematics Education. 96(7):20-23. (in Japanese) Baba T & Nakai K. 2011. “Teachers’ Institution and Participation in a Lesson Study Project in Zambia: Implication and Possibilities”. Africa-Asia University Dialogue for Educational Development Report of the International Experience Sharing Seminar (2) - Actual Status and Issues of Teacher Professional Development. CICE, Hiroshima University, 85-102. Baba T, Nakawa N, Nkhata B, Auther M, Barbara M, Emmanuel K, Kosaka M, Kusaka S, Mambwe B, Nkhalamo CJ & Watanabe K. (2019). The Development of an Assessment Instrument for Numeracy Competence and its Application to Selected Primary Schools in Zambia. Zambia Journal of Teacher Professional Growth, 5(2):72-92. Berry JW. 1985. Learning Mathematics in a Second Language: Some Cross-Cultural Issues. For the Learning of Mathematics, 5:18-23. Cai J & Howson G. 2012. Toward an International Mathematics Curriculum. In: M Clements, A Bishop, C Keitel, J Kilpatrick & F Leung (eds). Third International Handbook of Mathematics Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Volume 27. New York, NY: Springer, 949-974. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4684-2_29 Clements DH & Sarama J. 2010. Learning Trajectories in Early Mathematics - Sequences of Acquisition and Teaching. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development, 1-6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242686699_Learning_Trajectories_in_EarlyMathematics_-_Sequences_of_Acquisition_and_Teaching [8 July 2019]. Clements DH & Sarama J. 2013. Rethinking Early Mathematics: What Is Research-Based Curriculum for Young Children? In: L English & J Mulligan (eds). Reconceptualizing Early Mathematics Learning. Advances in Mathematics Education. Dordrecht: Springer, 121-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6440-8_7 D’Ambrosio U. 1986. Socio-Cultural Bases for Mathematical Education. In: M Carss (ed). Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on Mathematical Education. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4238-1_1 Hungi N, Makuwa D, Ross K, Saito M, Dolata S, Van Cappelle F, Paviot L & Vellien J. 2010. SACMEQ Ⅲ Project Result: Pupil Achievement Levels in Regarding and Mathematics Working Document Number 1. SACMEQ. Jacobsen E. 1996. International Co-operation in Mathematics Education. In: AJ Bishop, K Clements, C Keitel, J Kilpatrick, & C Laborde (eds). International Handbook of Mathematics Education. Kluwer International Handbooks of Education, Volume 4. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1465-0_35 Meyer HD & Katie Z. 2014. An Open Letter: To Andreas Schleicher, OECD, Paris. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik, 31-36. Ministry of Education, Republic of Zambia.(1996). Educating Our Future. Lusaka: MOE. Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education, Republic of Zambia. (2013a). Mathematics Syllabus (Grade 1 to 7). Lusaka: Curriculum Development Centre. Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education, Republic of Zambia. (2013b). Zambia: Education Curriculum Framework. Lusaka: Curriculum Development Centre. Ministry of National Development Planning, Republic of Zambia. (2017). 7th National Development Plan: Accelerating Development Efforts Towards Vision 2030 Without Leaving Anyone Behind. Lusaka: Ministry of National Development Planning. Mulligan J & Mitchelmore M. 2009. Awareness of Pattern and Structure in Early Mathematical Development. Mathematics Education Research Journal. 21(2):33-49. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03217544 Mulligan J & Mitchelmore M. (2013). Early Awareness of Mathematical Pattern and Structure. In: L English & J Mulligan (eds). Reconceptualizing Early Mathematics Learning. Advances in Mathematics Education. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6440-8_3 Nakayama S. 2002. JSPS Basic Fund (B), Report on Development of Special Program System in Collaboration with International Development Graduate Schools and International Aid Agencies (2001-2002). National Institution For Youth Education. (2021). Survey on the Attitudes of Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers Returnees. Japan: National Institution For Youth Education. Nebres BF. 1988. School Mathematics in the 1990’s: Recent Trends and the Challenge to the Developing Countries. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress on Mathematical Education, 13-27. Roberts N. 2015. Interpreting Children’s Representations of Whole Number Additive Relations in the Early Grades. In: XH Sun, B Kaur & J Novotna (eds). Proceeding of ICMI STUDY 23: Primary Mathematics Study on Whole Number. Macao, China, 243-251. Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality [SACMEQ]. 2019. About SEACMEQ - Mission. https://www.sacmeq.org/?q=mission [31 May 2019]. Chapter 6 A Glimpse into a Master’s Degree and an Internship Programme of African Business Education Initiative for Youth: A Case Study of International Partnership between Japan and Africa Cedric Mpaso 1 1 The author is working as a Teacher Educator for in-service training at the Ministry of Education, Directorate of Teacher Education and Development in Malawi. He is a former student of Hiroshima University and recipient of the Africa Business Education (ABE) Initiative, second batch.

National Trainer Ministry of Education-Directorate of Teacher Education and Development Malawi cedric.mpaso@education.gov.mw 6.1 Background Following the first four chapters, in which the higher education and societal contextual configurations of Japan and South Africa were presented and the scope for partnerships between universities of the two countries portrayed, chapter 5 presented a case study of partnership programmes between Japan and Zambia, as an example and object lesson for South Africa. This chapter offers a second case study of Japanese universities’ involvement in Africa, as an object lesson to learn from, in exploring possibilities for South African – Japanese universities’ partnerships. The African Business Education (ABE) Initiative for Youth programme was the brainchild of the Tokyo International Conference on Africa Development (TICAD) held in 2013 (Fujino 2016). TICAD V represents a series of conferences that provide a multilateral platform for the development of African countries, co-organised by the Government of Japan, African Union, United Nations, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and World Bank. During TICAD V, the Japanese government committed itself to officially raising support for Africa through the following three pillars:

1. A robust sustainable economy

2. An inclusive and resilient society

3. Peace and stability

A robust sustainable economy with human resource development for business and industry in Africa, such as the ABE Initiative and TICAD Human Resource Development Centers, were highlighted under Pillar 1. A year later, the first group of ABE Initiatives students was recruited to pursue a master’s degree and internship programme in Japan. 6.2 Introduction of the ABE Initiative The objective of the master’s degree and internship programme of the ABE Initiative is to support young personnel who have the potential to contribute to the development of industries in Africa. This programme offers opportunities for young African personnel to study master’s courses in Japanese universities as international students and to experience internships at Japanese enterprises. This programme intends to foster excellent personnel who can recognise and understand the contexts of Japanese society and the systems of Japanese enterprises to contribute to Africa’s development in collaboration with the Japanese private sector. The expected outcome of the programme is a network of potential contributors to the development of African industries, which will also lead the Japanese private sector to engage in further economic activities in Africa (JICA 2016; Someya, Yoshimoto & Komoriya 2016). The ABE Initiative programme targeted participants from 54 nations in Africa (all TICAD nations, including North Africa). 6.2.1 Persons from the Private Sector Young individuals who are or will be involved in economic activities in the local private sector and develop and maintain strong ties with Japanese companies were targeted so that they will be able to contribute positively to the business development between people from Japan and the private sector in their respective countries. 6.2.2 Government Officials Young government officials and civil servants participate in the formulation and/or implementation of industrial policies. These individuals were targeted because they were strategically positioned in government machinery. They could support policy formulation whenever they fostered mutually beneficial relationships between the Japanese business sector and any African country where Japanese investors may be interested in establishing their businesses. 6.2.3 Educators Young instructors or teachers in higher education, technical and vocational education and training institutions in Africa were included. This group was targeted to ensure smooth technology transfer whenever possible from Japan to any African country where educators could benefit from the programme. Areas in higher education were of particular interest.

Figure 6.1: Operational framework of the ABE programme (Fujino 2016) 6.3 Recruitment Process (Adapted from Fujino 2016) 2 2 Fujino is a staff worker for JICA Headquarters in Tokyo. He made a presentation to ABE participants that highlighted all critical areas about the programme. Generally, the ABE Initiative scholarship is advertised on the Japan International Cooperation Agency’s (JICA) website to all members of the public worldwide. The JICA office shares country-customised advertisements to specific African countries with timelines for the dates of particular activities in the application process. The recruitment process (Fig. 6.1) for potential ABE scholarship beneficiaries was twofold: application documents for the scholarship and those directed to a prospective Japanese university. The Japan International Cooperation Centre (JICE), which is entrusted with managing all scholarship-related activities in Japan, contacts universities that successful scholarship candidates submitted as per their choices during their application. JICE only formalises the entry arrangements regarding scholarship guidelines for candidates who have already secured a place in the university. The scholarship process is embodied by a rigorous activity that comprises the screening of application letters, interviews and language tests. When successful, the candidate also underwent online interviews with university personnel, arranged by the JICA office. It is heartbreaking though, that at every point, candidature could drop, but there was no formal communication with unsuccessful candidates. Those who are successful learn about it once they are invited for another round of interviews. Finally, JICA contacts the handful of candidates that are picked to participate in the programme. 6.4 Participants’ Arrival in Japan The ABE Initiative is a scholarship programme offered by the Japanese government to the international community, specifically African youth, and its conceptualisation ensures that it serves the training objective. The first group of African students was invited to Japan in 2014, and for subsequent years, every year’s intake was referred to as a ‘batch’, starting with 2014 as the first batch. Initially, 1,000 participants from the 54 African countries were supposed to be enrolled in three batches, but after the third batch and after three years, an extension of some kind was registered (Fujino 2016). This implies that the programme was implemented over three batches. The author joined the programme in the second batch and enrolled in a master’s degree programme at Hiroshima University in the Graduate School of International Development and Cooperation (IDEC). 6.5 Orientation for ABE Initiative Participants Upon arrival in Japan, all participants in a particular batch were hosted at the Tokyo International Centre (TIC) for two weeks. Participants were focused on various issues for their smooth survival in Japan for the next three years. Their stay was divided into three segments: during the first six months, participants joined the university as research students; during the second 24 months (two years), they joined as master’s degree students in their respective universities; and finally, they join as internee students in any admitting institution for the last six months (this is optional, and duration could also vary). Additionally, participants were oriented towards the business manners of Japan’s cooperate world and what is expected of them. They could also interact with Japanese companies prior to joining their respective universities within their first two weeks in Tokyo. By the time participants were dispatched to their respective universities, they had better knowledge of the programme from their first to last day in Japan. Coupled with the practical aspect of organising a company fare right away in Tokyo, this enabled participants to approach the programme’s activities with courage and strength. My experience during this time included both excitement and concern as I was in a foreign country and very far from home. Similar to the many young people who came to Japan under this programme, almost all of us were excited to live in Japan. Firstly, because Africa is very far from Japan, and to have an opportunity to travel to Japan, a country known to Africans as one of the first-world countries which export most of the motor vehicles trotting on our continent, was a great achievement. Secondly, everyone who was accepted into the programme had a reason to celebrate, considering how hectic the recruitment process was. Thirdly, the opportunity to study for a master’s degree would be a turning point in changing an individual’s status when we return to our respective countries. Fourthly, through the orientation programme, participants were able to meet and make friends from all corners of Africa, which also helped us to know each other prior to joining our study institutions, something that cannot just happen even back in Africa. Another pleasure stemmed from the opportunity to see things in person that one only used to hear or read about back home. When undergoing orientation about Japanese business culture, the programme encouraged us to meet business personnel from different Japanese companies and to interact with them without any hiccups. I realised there was a difference in approaches when it came to business issues as compared to foreign students who joined universities through other programmes. However, most of the participants were worried about the progress of orientation because of the real-world interactions. Different sessions were arranged for participants, starting from general living conditions in Japan, thus integrating all African students into Japanese society. Most participants started complaining about whether they would manage to survive the next 36 months with no serious challenges. The concerns were coupled with students’ lives yet to be lived in the universities as they studied for a master’s degree. The actual study was not a challenge to many of us, but how to survive is what gave us food for thought, especially when we compared African ways with Japanese environments. Participants, however, encouraged each other, especially when we had a meeting with some of the previous ABE participants who came to share their experiences about living and studying in Japan. 6.6 Dispatching ABE Participants to Their Respective Universities After a two-week orientation period, ABE participants were dispatched as prospective students to join their respective universities. Participants going to universities in the same region were dispatched together to a regional JICA centre. For instance, in our case, those going to Hiroshima University, and universities in Yamaguchi, Tottori and Shimane, were dispatched to the Chugoku JICA Centre located in Higashihiroshima. For a week, we were oriented on how we would fare in the universities where we were to enrol. Thereafter, JICE officials introduced us to our respective academic supervisors in the graduate schools we joined. Depending on the university’s admission policy, some participants were directly admitted to the master’s degree course. A good example would be those enrolled at the University of Tottori, while those enrolled at Hiroshima University were enrolled as research students for the next six months before being admitted fully into a master’s degree programme after passing an entrance examination. Upon joining the university, another orientation was organised to enable new students to settle well as they pursued their studies at the university. Some guidelines for conducting research were like those met previously, while some were specific to student researchers. After staying in Japan for a year, participants are allowed to join one- or two-week clinical internships in a company as organised by JICE and hosting companies depending on their (company’s) interests in the African region. This activity also acts as an eye-opener for ABE participants to understand the depth of Japanese companies’ business culture, their interest in human capital and future collaboration with Africa. 6.7 Programme for Monitoring ABE Activities From the time ABE participants enter the universities until they finish their master’s course, scheduled face-to-face monitoring of the participants is done twice in the year, but informal sessions are done whenever necessary. For instance, JICE schedules formal face-to-face monitoring sessions with ABE participants to get an update on their living conditions and their welfare in terms of academic progress. These sessions are intensive because JICE personnel must ensure that all kinds of stakeholders in the university are approached, especially those that relate in one way or the other (such as academic supervisors, laboratory mates, neighbours at your apartment, etc.) towards the well-being of ABE participants. Personally, I liked these monitoring sessions, as JICE took the role of a guardian during our stay in Japan. Through this kind of interface, we were able to share with JICE the challenges that we were experiencing from general living conditions, such as where we were housed. However, in all these monitoring sessions, we were reprimanded not to submit written reports unless on appropriate occasions, such as when one had returned from a research activity overseas. JICE valued face-to-face meetings more because they were able to probe further if there were issues that required them to do so. Sometimes, challenges could exist between a student and an academic supervisor, and JICE could help solve the issue. I remember there was a very challenging scenario between one of us and the academic advisor to the extent that the ABE student could not make any research progress. It took the intervention of JICE to settle the whole pandemonium for our friend to make progress in their research. In another case, a friend of mine decided to withdraw from the scholarship even after further counselling and support from JICE. This friend had some role conflicts between academic and family life, which contributed to some serious challenges in research progress. Even though JICE dedicated some staff to offering specialised support in several ways, it did not address the situation. Thereafter, JICE recommended that JICA temporarily withdraw this friend from this academic program to return to his home country, although it was a bitter pill to swallow. Informal monitoring usually emanates from emergencies such as earthquakes, floods, heavy storms or typhoons that cause serious damage where some ABE participants reside. If this happens, emails or phone calls from JICE could be received asking participants in that region to report their condition. As Japan is an earthquake-prone area, JICE can send emails checking our well-being every time an earthquake is officially registered in our area, regardless of its magnitude. Sometimes, warnings of typhoons and floods in a specific region propelled JICE to communicate constantly with us to make us alert. I remember that three weeks towards my internship termination date, our city had heavy downpours, and JICE kept on reminding us of our well-being until the continuous rains subsided. 6.8 Further Engagements with Private Companies (ABE Participants and Japanese Company Networking Fair) As mentioned previously, during the first two weeks of orientation, JICA ensures that ABE participants have an opportunity to interact with Japanese company personnel so that they embark on a relationship that could be beneficial during the study period and way beyond. The engagement between Japanese companies and ABE participants paves the way for initial internship activity, which falls one year after a participant is enrolled as a student in a Japanese university, as indicated in scholarship guidelines. With reference to our batch, for instance, we had the first Japanese company networking fair during the orientation and the second after six months in Tokyo. All ABE participants were called to participate in this fair from all regions of Japan. During the networking fair, a number of presentations were made by various organisation representatives such as JICA, JICE and JETRO, to promote the networking envisioned through TICAD towards investing in Africa. A year later, all ABE participants from the Kansai region also had another networking fair in Kobe organised by JICA. This one was patronised by ABE participants from all three batches. The purpose was to enhance networking between Japanese entrepreneurs and ABE participants in the region. However, at the Kobe Networking Fair, African countries’ embassy representatives based in Japan were also invited to showcase their countries. This move strengthened the ABE participants’ drive to elaborate more on opportunities for investments and collaboration with other business entities in their respective countries. 6.9 Initial (Pre-Graduation) Internship After Two or Three Semesters (A Must Attend) As per the operational framework, during a time period ranging between one and a half to two and a half, the ABE participants are supposed to join the initial internship as arranged by JICE in one of the hosting companies. The internship is generally arranged for a period of either one or two weeks. This exposes a participant to a real business environment in Japan, beyond the interface with companies during company networking fares. In my case, I spent two weeks on an initial internship at two locations. In the first week, I was hosted by a company in Ehime Prefecture, Matsuyama City. This company is involved in information and communication technology (ICT) and operates a school for the special needs community in the ICT area. During my stay, I noted the passion the people in the company had for the skills development of children with special needs from their community. In the morning, these children go to their specific ordinary schools until they are picked up by the company’s vehicles during the early afternoon and taken to the company’s school. These children are loved and supported to the extent that their attendance is not by force. Because of what I observed in this company that I decided to study a course on inclusive education and special needs so that I could understand and support the special needs children accordingly. Through the course, I got very good exposure as the professor was able to take us to these specialised schools, like one in Kure Ward within Hiroshima Prefecture. During the second week, I was hosted by a company in Tokyo that was in the business of teaching and learning materials, especially in science subjects. It is rare for one to join two companies, as was the case with me, but JICA and my academic advisor arranged for internships in different companies and to avoid inconveniences to the companies, an opportunity was granted to join both. In Tokyo, my interest was in the company’s drive to provide services in Japan and beyond, and how the business cooperated with the government through the Ministry of Education. This was the case because, by then, the business plan I submitted to JICA was in line with what this company was doing. Besides selling science teaching and learning materials, the company also supported science teachers in Tokyo by providing continuing professional development (CPD) to science teachers. Overall, I realised that the business system and environment in both Japanese companies were similar, although they differed in their business focus. 6.10 Graduating From the Master’s Course After two or two and a half years (participants who join the master’s course directly without undergoing research student experience), the master’s course is completed, and ABE participants graduate with a master’s degree. However, before I share more about my internship experience after graduation, let me say something about the masters’ course experience. My experiences during this phase were both exciting and enriching. My studies at Hiroshima University taught me how to think through my interactions with academic advisors, weekly science education laboratory presentations and informal gatherings within the university, especially in my graduate school and university libraries, which I usually visited to strengthen my research arguments and wherever possible in general. During the four-semester period, I studied different courses that enabled me to satisfy the university’s acceptable accumulation of credit hours to qualify for a master’s degree award. This course was conducted alongside the development of my research. Depending on the number of students in the research laboratory, a schedule for individual presentations for the progress of one’s research was created, sometimes two or three times a semester. These were exciting moments as one was expected to present in the area of your expertise and the audience could ask all sorts of questions ranging from methodological, ethical and content, and then advise you accordingly for better progress. The audience in this case were research laboratory mates and academic supervisors. Most often, my academic supervisor could not just tell me what to do, but through the Socratic model as an individual, I could collect myself and move on, hence being a catalyst for my development of how to think. The course also exposed me to take part in local and international conferences, where I presented my research progress. Through these appearances, I gained the courage to share my academic findings whenever there was a need. Academic integrity dictates the sharing of findings, as researchers learn from each other to determine a gap worthy of further research. Through my master’s course, my academic supervisor recommended that I collect data twice: first, following the experimental research design I pursued, and second, longitudinal data collection was deployed to check the level of participants’ progress at different times along the way. My studies at Hiroshima University also provided opportunities to collaborate with people from different countries. This improved our networking base as I can enquire from colleagues from Indonesia, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Japan, Rwanda, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia, Uzbekistan, and so forth whenever needed. As per the ABE Initiative design, a participant was provided with two options: going back to Africa immediately after graduating or joining a long-term internship prior to returning to Africa. This post-graduation internship is optional in the sense that one can join, but it also depends on whether the participant has been invited by the hosting company. Unlike the initial internship, whoever participates in ABE is expected to join. JICE makes arrangements if a company has invited a participant as taking part in the internship is strictly based on companies’ invitation and ABE participants’ willingness to join. In this phase, the same company in Ehime Prefecture, Matsuyama City, invited me to join them for another six months. However, because of my personal schedule, we negotiated and reduced the period to four months. I started my internship on 1 April 2018 and finished on 31 July 2018. During this time, I was first exposed to all the departments in the company in more detail compared to my initial encounter so that I would appreciate how the company conducts its business. Through our weekly meetings and other specially arranged meetings, I was tasked with studying how Japanese companies hire and develop their employees to meet the company’s needs. I learnt that the Japanese company arranges various events, both formal and informal, to establish a working relationship and reduce tension in the workplace between different offices in the organisation. In contrast to the Japanese scenario, I was previously exposed to the Western way of hiring employees only. The company also asked me to come up with business ideas and plans for future investments and further collaboration with African countries. To this end, I came up with over six plans for the company’s consideration in the future. After my first month at the company, I was given the opportunity to develop a project that could be beneficial to people of my home country when I returned. At this point, I decided to develop an online platform, Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (MOODLE), which can be used to further Malawian teachers’ CPD, starting with science teachers in secondary schools. I branded my MOODLE CPD platform Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE), and the company supported me in hosting the website in their servers until we were ready to move it into our servers back in Malawi. The platform is still there, only that it has remained idle for the past three years owing to a lack of maintenance. When I returned to my home country, the platform continued to be used on a trial basis, but was not rolled out due to resource constraints. All in all, it was worth having these two experiences in the university and internship company. I am a proud product of Hiroshima University and the internship company as far as what I formally learnt in Japan is concerned. 6.11 End of Programme: Returning to My Home Country The programme has different ending points for different individuals, depending on what was shared after the master’s course and the pursuance of an ABE participant in the internship programme. As highlighted earlier, for those who were not interested in joining postgraduate internship activities, their ABE scholarship programme ended immediately after attaining their master’s degree. Those invited and willing to join internship activities ended immediately after the internship regardless of the internship duration, whether a few weeks to six months (maximum duration of the final internship programme) is over. It is worth mentioning that there is still collaboration years after the master’s programme and business internship courses. JICA and JICE continue to coordinate and usually participate in meetings that are conducted online together with Japanese companies collaborating with African companies and even those willing to invest. As for ex-ABE participants from all batches, participation in these online meetings is open, but most often, the number of those who respond positively to invitations does not exceed 200. 6.12 Conclusion According to the design of the ABE Initiative Master’s and Internship Programme, the basic fulfilment of the programme is over upon completion of the master’s programme in the Japanese university, and ABE participants are free to go back to their own countries as postgraduate internships are optional. This arrangement is also in agreement with the bilateral contracts made by the Japanese government and benefitting African countries. However, there are some ABE scholarship recipients accommodated into doctoral programmes in their universities, which is an arrangement beyond the ABE scholarship and internship programme. This was an added advantage provided to recipients of ABE Initiative scholarships to extend their stay to pursue further studies. I also find the ABE Initiative to be a vibrant course as it provided an opportunity for many African youth to learn from Japanese successes and challenges to contribute positively towards their respective countries’ development, while collaborating with Japanese industries. Africa has gained a lot intellectually by having more than 1,000 youths trained in higher education, where everyone graduated with a master’s degree and some privileged few with a doctoral degree. In the long run, this will impact Africa’s development. However, I would suggest that organisers provide a better path to hosting companies to engage in activities with ABE participants during their post-graduate internships. Most of the post-graduate interns experienced a small gap in aligning the hosting companies’ desires with the development of the African market, despite the support of interns. It appears that the hosting company’s interests are not well defined, and even the support provided by the ABE participants after returning to their countries is unclear. My experience with the internship hosting company after my postgraduate internship has not been quite successful. I tried to engage the company personnel in Malawi for our support, but they were not interested. Efforts to engage headquarters in Japan did not bear any fruit. I think this happened because there were no straightforward plans on how we (former ABE participants) could render our support after returning to Africa. I would also suggest that all Japanese companies hosting ABE participants for internships express a strong interest in investing in the African market. This will enable them to develop concrete plans with interns thereafter. Apart from the company that hosted me in Japan, no other company has come to Malawi yet or even registered an interest in collaborating with Malawian companies at a time of this publication. References Fujino K. 2016. A Presentation on JICA’s Activities in Africa and Expectation for ABE Initiative, Planning & TICAD Process Division, Africa Department, JICA. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2016. Handbook for JICA ABE Initiative Participants. Someya A, Yoshimoto K & Komoriya E. 2016. A Presentation on Summer Internship Program for the 2nd batch ABE participants, Japan International Cooperation Centre (JICE). Chapter 7 Reflection on Graduate Research Training at Japanese National Universities Foster Gondwe

University of Malawi Malawi fgondwe@unima.ac.mw 7.1 Introduction So far, this volume has established the higher education and societal contexts between South Africa and Japan, outlined the collaboration potential between the countries and analysed a case study of partnership programmes between Japan and Zambia. The previous chapter offered a second case study of Japanese universities’ involvement on the Africa continent, as an objective lesson to learn from, in exploring possibilities for South African – Japanese universities’ partnerships. This chapter supplements Chapter 6 by offering the lived experience of a Malawian student in the collaboration case focused on in Chapter 6. The number of international students in Japanese universities has been soaring since the mid-1980s, partly owing to the government policy aimed at increasing the number of international students in Japanese universities by 2000 (Murphy-Shigematsu 2002:19). Meanwhile, providing support for a quality learning environment is critical for Japanese universities that host international students. Yet, while Japanese universities have increased efforts to attract international students, “many of these universities are struggling to become more international and accommodate foreign students” (Hennings & Tanabe 2018:1914). Understanding students’ experiences could provide insights into a university’s shortcomings, which can be scrutinised and resolved to attract and retain international students. This chapter presents the author’s research training experience at a Japanese national university to determine its limitations. This contribution is especially significant in the context of transforming national universities into independent agencies that seek to improve the global competitiveness of higher education in Japan (Oba 2007). This chapter is structured as follows: first, the literature on international students was reviewed, followed by the author’s biographical information. The literature review section, particularly the research on international students in Japan, provides a conceptual framework for discussing the author’s personal experiences. The specific aspects of the framework are: expectation and motivation to study in Japan, interdisciplinary research programme, student support services, cultural encounter, research training, supervision and supportive climate. 7.2 Research on International Students in Japan In Japan, universities and junior colleges provide higher education. The mode of delivery includes traditional face-to-face classroom instruction, while other universities, such as the Open University of Japan, offer distance education that integrates information communication technologies. In terms of policy framework, the Japanese government plays a leading role in regulating higher education. The incorporation of national universities in 2004 is one of the contemporary policy reforms that the Ministry of Education has championed to enhance the competitiveness of higher education in Japan. Alongside the corporatisation of national universities, efforts to attract international students have been motivated by declining numbers of domestic students (Hennings & Tanabe 2018). For example, Hennings and Tanabe (2018) cite the Japanese government’s plan, implemented in 2008, to reach 300,000 international students by 2020. However, this was not the only rationale for recruiting international students. In addition to being a source of necessary foreign revenue, international students contribute to intercultural learning and increase understanding of diversity and global issues (NAFSA 2003, cited in Andrade 2006). In the context of Japan, this can be understood through international students’ motivation to study there. The literature shows that some international students are attracted to studying in Japan because of their ability to study in English while living in Japan, the availability of financial assistance, the affordability of study programmes and their curiosity about Japanese culture. The literature also provides insights into the challenges faced by international students at Japanese universities. They experience the following challenges: intercultural association with Japanese people, mental health issues, exaggerated cost of living and coping with academic demands, especially conducting research (Murphy-Shigematsu 2002:19). Using the example of Aoyama Gakuin University, Hiratsuka (2019) demonstrates how the Japanese language serves as one of the major organisational barriers for international students while accessing university services and resources. According to Hiratsuka (2019:965), some Japanese universities have developed “English-taught degree programs to attract more international students, [but] university services often do not provide information in English”. Through this case study, Hiratsuka highlights the need for the internationalisation of university resources to facilitate an accessible, uniform and supportive academic milieu at Japanese universities. Notably, international student adjustment issues have global implications for intercultural education. Hence, the researchers work extensively to reveal the factors that influence international students’ adjustment. One study found that “scholarship recipients were better adjusted than those relying on private sources for funding” (Tanaka, Takai, Kohyama & Fujihara 1994:55). Yeh and Mayuko (2003:143) noted that factors such as friendships with residents, gender, country of origin and year in school also affect adjustment. However, friendships and teamwork with domestic peers are problematic because the latter is not always responsive. Andrade (2006) studied international students in higher education institutions in English-speaking countries and reported that adjustment challenges were primarily attributable to English language proficiency and cultural differences. Yeh and Mayuko (2003) also identified that lack of language proficiency and cultural knowledge contributed to the sub-par academic experience. Accordingly, Yeh and Mayuko (2003:133) recommend the following: As nations set strategies to attract international students, they must also consider the educational and cultural experiences of these students in the destination country. Institutions cannot simply admit foreign students and expect them to adjust to life in a new country and educational system without appropriate support and programming. Yeh and Mayuko’s recommendation can be noteworthy for Japanese universities, as these universities endeavour to motivate the “establishment of positions in student services, improvement of counselling activities, the appointment of advisers, and organisation of peer support groups” (Oba 2007:296). Likewise, as discussed later in this chapter, the student support system at Hiroshima University was designed to provide peer-to-peer extracurricular assistance to newly-arrived international students (HU International Centre 2015), as they faced language barriers and lack of knowledge while signing utility contracts, such as electricity, water and cell phones. Thus, the student support system is expected to offer educational benefits to students, such as international and intercultural understanding and an increased interest in international cooperation (HU International Centre 2015). The personal reflections presented in this chapter can help in understanding the impact of the student support system at universities. Additionally, the above issues also provide a terminus a quo for my research experience at a Japanese university. Among others, I reflect on my expectations and motivation to study in Japan, the interdisciplinary research programme I was enrolled in, the research supervision I experienced, the student support service I accessed, the cultural encounter, the research training I underwent and the supportive climate at my graduate school. The conclusion reports how the experiences might benefit other researchers, practitioners and policymakers while also underscoring the limitations of personal experience as research evidence. 7.3 Biographical Information To begin with, it is necessary to provide a brief biography of myself to help the reader make sense of my experience as a graduate student at a Japanese university. I am a Malawian man, and at the time of writing this chapter, I was in the age range of 30-35 years. I am a lecturer at the Education Foundations Department, School of Education, University of Malawi. I was awarded a Japanese Government (MEXT) scholarship and completed my Ph.D. in Education at the Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University, Japan. I spent five years at Hiroshima University, which involved completing my first two years of a Master of Education degree, and an additional three years for a Ph.D. degree. I specialise in educational development, including content areas of instructional technology, faculty development, comparative education, international cooperation in education and teacher education and professionalisation. My doctoral dissertation and master’s thesis explored the theme of technology integration in teachers’ education. Prior to joining Hiroshima University, I served as an instructor in the Education Foundations Department at the University of Malawi where I am also currently based. I joined the University of Malawi as an academic staff member two years after completing my Bachelor of Education degree majoring in African social history at the same university. Currently, a great part of my research is committed to understanding the intersection of information technology and teacher education, especially how the educators of teachers integrate technology into their work. This research commitment is premised on the fact that teacher educators play an important role in preparing prospective and in-service teachers to integrate technology into their classrooms. So far, I have presented this research at several local and international conferences, delivered invited talks and published it in peer-reviewed journals and popular media. 7.3.1 Expectations and Motivation to Study in Japan As already stated, international students are attracted to studying in Japan for various reasons. In my case, although I did not have concrete expectations from the Japanese university education system, in hindsight, I noticed that I was attracted to study in Japan due to the availability of financial assistance under the Japanese Government (MEXT) scholarship. This study-abroad opportunity was also necessary for developing my academic career at a public university in Malawi. In my application for enrolment at Hiroshima University, I indicated the following: I intend to study teacher education (Master’s Degree) at Hiroshima University. Proceeding from my undergraduate programme which focused on teaching studies, my special interest is in educational technology, and my tentative research area is to evaluate some teacher education programmes regarding how they prepare student teachers to use modern technologies in the teaching and learning process. This evaluative study builds on my previous experience since at the undergraduate level I also did an evaluative study. More importantly, the research also builds on my current exposure to educational technology as a discipline because I am teaching similar content at the University of Malawi. The above extract suggests that I expected to expand my knowledge of what I was teaching at the University of Malawi. In my first year of study, my initial impression was that the programme of study was not relevant to the area I wanted to specialise in. There was also less emphasis on competitive examinations, as was the case with my undergraduate experience in Malawi. Instead, the emphasis was on ‘doing’ research and working in collaboration with others. I also needed to resolve some tensions, especially to strike a balance concerning the expectations of my employer, the focus of the programme I was enrolled in and the expectation of MEXT that funded my studies. However, five years into the interdisciplinary degree programme, I realised that the programme helped me define my field of study and focus on instructional technology, which would be useful to my work. In other words, my programme experience conformed to my expectations. In the next section, I elaborate on the interdisciplinary research programme I pursued at Hiroshima University. 7.3.2 Interdisciplinary Research Programme Since their incorporation in 2004, national universities in Japan “have been increasingly cultivating interdisciplinary research programs to better meet the needs of society and to maintain and strengthen their scientific excellence” (Oba 2007:295). This was the case when I was a student at the Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation at Hiroshima University, as shown in Figure 7.1, which is a screenshot of the school website.

Figure 7.1: Webpage for the Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation The programme provided me with a starting point to understand educational issues in developing countries. I enrolled in an educational development programme, which allowed me to study diverse programmes such as Asian cultures, international relations, international cooperation in education, local curriculum development and global citizenship. The multidisciplinary nature of my programme helped me approach my research through multiple perspectives. The committee for my doctoral dissertation also included professors from diverse fields such as anthropology, science education, educational technology, teacher education and African studies. 7.3.3 Student Support Services Oba (2007) points out student support services as one of the significant efforts that national universities have been focusing on to become more internationalised. I experienced this feature at the Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation. The student support division played an active role in guiding course registration. I also learned that the academic advisor is critical in meeting student needs, although this seems to depend on individual advisors. For instance, during the 2018 floods, when the supermarkets were inaccessible, my academic advisor volunteered to drive me to the supermarket to get provisions. Furthermore, when I first arrived as a master’s student in 2016, I was allocated a ‘student supporter’, a Japanese student who helped me settle, including getting contracts for housing, telephone, banking, electricity and water. In the next section, I discuss the same student support system. This is relevant because my experience with a student supporter at Hiroshima University also helped me gain insight into some of the most subtle aspects of Japanese culture. As presented in the next section, I began to get a sense of work ethics, language and a general view of life from a Japanese perspective. 7.3.4 Cultural Encounter According to Leask (2009), improved interactions between domestic and international students depend on how formal and informal curricula encourage and reward intercultural engagement. Leask (2009:205) recommended an internationalised curriculum, “which requires a campus environment and culture that obviously motivates and rewards interaction between international and home students in and out of the classroom”. In Japan, there are reports of inward-looking youth, which means that the youth show less interest in overseas experiences. This necessitates the need for intercultural experiences at Japanese universities. For instance, Morita (2014:1) reported low levels of intercultural interaction between Japanese and international students. When I was a student at Hiroshima University, I learned that the student support system was designed to provide participating students with educational and cultural experiences. In one of my master’s coursework for the subject called Fieldwork Methodology in Educational Development, I had an opportunity to interview student supporters to understand their experience of working as student supporters. One of the student supporters reported that she had become a student supporter to improve her communication. As such, she considered the following as one benefit of being a supporter: “… to get [the] chance to speak English … and to understand other cultures”. Apart from communication, student supporters also learn about the cultures of international students. The benefits align with the findings of NAFSA’s (2003) study reporting the role of international students in enhancing understanding of other cultures and the world at large. I also believe there was a cultural and language gap between international and Japanese students in their daily lives. For instance, one student supporter informed me that … foreign students had problems in understanding Japanese. So, when they do anything they face problems ... if they want to make a contract for a cell phone [connection], water, or electricity they need support from Japanese students … but usually Japanese students don’t care about foreign students … so, I got in this situation. (Interview with student supporter, 23/12/2016) These gaps also exist among domestic students. For instance, while reflecting on lessons learned from supporter experience, one student supporter observed that Japanese people [maintain] a distance when we communicate with each other ... [Japanese people are] not so friendly with fellow Japanese students … hie ... konnichiwa ... hie hie ... I don’t care … don’t look at me … I focus on my job, something like that. Japanese people tend to be like that … In Japanese [culture, there is] no hugging, especially with strangers, when I see Japanese [people] whom I have not met before … They feel very nervous and don’t talk too much. (Interview with a student supporter, 23/12/2016) This observation shows that, through their work, student supporters can develop a sense of peace and coexistence, including global citizenship skills through intercultural experience. In summary, my view is that the student support system provides the faculty with the means to appreciate a new culture while helping international students settle and adjust in Japan. On the other hand, interaction with the student support system is characterised by the tribulations and struggles of cultural diversity. While tolerance is a solution to peaceful coexistence, more effort should be made to guard against superior-versus-inferior intercultural comparisons between international and Japanese students. 7.3.5 Research Training Before joining Hiroshima University, I had undergone introductory courses on research methods for education and history as part of my undergraduate studies at the University of Malawi. I also conducted fieldwork, based on which I wrote a qualitative dissertation focusing on Indian immigrants and settlements in Malawi. This undergraduate research training introduced me to the basic principles of conducting research. Overall, my undergraduate research training prepared me for postgraduate research. Thereafter, when I joined Hiroshima University, my research approach was influenced by my previous training. In my research lab, most research topics were qualitative. The learning activities took the form of research seminar presentations. I also recall that “research as a daily meal” was the motto of our research laboratory, which essentially meant that students were expected to work regularly to make progress. I found this motto motivating, as it pushed me to work on my research. The other ‘philosophy’ of our academic advisor was to develop a “self-regulatory researcher”, meaning that students would be in control of their research. In this way, the academic advisor exemplified the balance between guiding the students on one hand and helping them become autonomous on the other. This philosophy also helped me because it allowed me to make mistakes, learn from them and revise accordingly. Many of the seminar presentations adopted a collaborative learning approach, where students learned implicitly or explicitly from each other. For example, after each presentation, the academic advisor asked other students to comment, ask questions and suggest changes. Based on such contributions of other students, the presenter reflected on changes to be made and communicated from where they would begin the next presentation. 7.3.6 Supervision It is noteworthy that research students are less likely to complete their degrees if they experience poor supervision (Ginns, Marsh, Behnia, Cheng & Scalas 2009). In this section, I reflect on the research supervision I experienced at Hiroshima University. The following extract from the acknowledgement section of my doctoral dissertation summarises my supervision experience: I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to the following people and institutions that rendered their support throughout my PhD journey. My academic advisor for his guidance, encouragement, and setting reasonable expectations that I should aim to achieve in my doctoral research. My professional growth this far is a result of his consistent effort in providing the resources I needed, as well as numerous learning opportunities such as exposure to the international community through conference presentations, and offering academic support to my fellow students. The above extract suggests that I received the necessary support from my academic advisors, especially in terms of diverse learning experiences. I attributed much of my professional growth to these experiences. I also recall reporting similar support when I was interviewed by my fellow student of Vietnamese nationality, who was interested in understanding my study experience as an international student in Japan. 3 3 YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZDdOq1fmLU The video was recorded to inform prospective international students interested in studying at a Japanese university. Figure 7.2 illustrates one of my research outputs, as encouraged by my academic advisor when I was a master’s student.

Figure 7.2: International Conference Presentation with Support from the Graduate School Since Figure 7.1 also relates to the overall educational support I received from the graduate school, in the next section, I reflect on the supportive climate at Hiroshima University. 7.3.7 Supportive Climate My experience regarding a supportive climate as a developing researcher is similar to what a fellow Malawian student at Hiroshima University, Tabitha Kayira, said in her graduation ceremony speech on 20 September 2020. Tabitha earned her Ph.D. in food science from the Biosphere Science Department at Hiroshima University. Similar to her, I arrived in Japan with mixed feelings: excited and yet afraid of what would become of me in a foreign land. On the one hand, I was afraid of how I would communicate with people, especially because of my limited Japanese language skills. On the other hand, Japan is known for its high-tech and innovative industry, so I was excited that I would study in such an enabling environment. Indeed, my research was supported by not only high-tech and sophisticated equipment but also supervision and guidance by a team of professors committed to their work. As such, at Hiroshima University, I earned more than one academic qualification. The support I received from my academic advisor prompted me to rethink how to approach the supervision of my prospective research students at the University of Malawi. My advisor provided more than academic support. Similar to Tabitha, I learned about the government’s and private sector’s commitment to investing in scientific research at a university. I believe that such investments and collaboration ensure the continued relevance of the university in generating knowledge and evidence to inform various development efforts at the national level. I also observed an invaluable shared commitment by both professors and students to effectively run and manage the affairs of research laboratories, the sense of ownership and responsibility and the necessity to be considerate of the next person using the lab. These shared ideals inspired by diligent professors and obedient students not only smoothen lab operations but also train scholars to become leaders in their own right, typified by a blend of intellect and character. 7.4 Conclusion The transformation of national universities into independent agencies has sought to strengthen the global competitiveness of Japanese higher education. Since hosting international students seems to be a strategy to improve competitiveness, understanding international students’ experiences can add to the knowledge base and improve the learning conditions of international students in Japan. Through my experience, I observed that my participation in academic conferences, clarity of our research lab ‘philosophy’, the degree of autonomy that my academic advisor accorded me, access to appropriate and sufficient resources for research and the opportunity to support fellow graduate students enhanced my research training at Hiroshima University. However, it should be noted that there is also a limitation to this experience. The chapter is based on personal reflections, notes during graduate studies and a review of the literature, which means the ‘findings’ are mostly subjective. However, my experience resonates with Ginns et al. (2009), who observed that research students may be unwilling to complete their degrees if they experience poor supervision, an unsupportive climate and inadequate infrastructure. These personal reflections can contribute to the development of measures to gauge students’ perceptions regarding the quality of their research training at Japanese universities. By exploring an African student’s study experience in Japan, this chapter also maintains that the internationalisation of higher education is required in Japan. References Andrade MS. 2006. International Students in English-Speaking Universities: Adjustment Factors. Journal of Research in International Education, 5(2):131-154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240906065589 Ginns P, Marsh HW, Behnia M, Cheng JH & Scalas LF. 2009. Using Postgraduate Students’ Evaluations of Research Experience to Benchmark Departments and Faculties: Issues and Challenges. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3):577-598. https://doi.org/10.1348/978185408X394347 Hennings M & Tanabe S. 2018. Study Abroad Objectives and Satisfaction of International Students in Japan. Journal of International Students, 8(4):1914-1925. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v8i4.238 Hiratsuka H. 2019. Japanese Language as an Organizational Barrier for International Students to Access to University Services: A Case of Aoyama Gakuin University. Journal of International Students, 6(4):956-966. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i4.328 HU International Centre. 2015. Supporter System for International Students Handbook. Leask B. 2009. Using Formal and Informal Curricula to Improve Interactions between Home and International Students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(2):205-221. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315308329786 Morita L. 2014. Factors Contributing to Low Levels of Intercultural Interaction between Japanese and International Students in Japan. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 36. https://doi.org/10.36923/jicc.v14i3.681 Murphy-Shigematsu S. 2002. Psychological Barriers for International Students in Japan. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 24(1):19-30. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015076202649 Oba J. 2007. Incorporation of National Universities in Japan. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 27(3):291-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188790701594059 Tanaka T, Takai J, Kohyama T & Fujihara T. 1994. Adjustment Patterns of International Students in Japan. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(1):55-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(94)90004-3 Yeh CJ & Mayuko I. 2003. International Students’ Reported English Fluency, Social Support Satisfaction, and Social Connectedness as Predictors of Acculturative Stress. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16:1:(15-28). https://doi.org/10.1080/0951507031000114058 Chapter 8 Conducting Webinars on Professional Development for Teacher Educators: Connecting the University of Malawi and the University of Zambia with Universities in Southeast Asian Countries May Thu Kyaw

Doctoral Student Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences Hiroshima University Japan 8.1 Introduction After laying the groundwork in the initial four chapters, which looked at the unique higher education landscapes and societal contexts of Japan and South Africa, as well as outlined the potential for collaboration between universities of the two nations, Chapter 5 highlighted a specific partnership programme between Japan and Zambia. This case study serves as both an example and a valuable lesson for South Africa. In Chapter 6, a second case study was presented, focusing on the engagement of Japanese universities across the African continent. This case serves as an instructive model for exploring potential partnerships between South African and Japanese universities. Chapter 7 complemented Chapter 6 by providing the firsthand account of a Malawian student involved in the collaboration case discussed in Chapter 6. This chapter offers another case study, this time regarding webinars on professional development for teacher educators, connecting the University of Malawi and the University of Zambia with universities in Southeast Asian countries. It is increasingly accepted that teachers’ abilities are impacted on by the quality of teacher educators (Cochran-Smith 2003; InFo-TED 2019; Lunenberg, Dengerink & Korthagen 2014). However, two main questions arise: “What does the quality of teacher educators depend on?” and “Who can support teacher educators’ quality and professional development (PD)?” Regarding the first question, one of the main factors affecting the quality of teacher educators is the PD they pursue and the provision of rich opportunities for their sustained professional growth. PD is viewed as an unending process that teacher educators must engage in as long as they are performing the role of teacher educators (Smith 2003). Hence, it is crucial for teacher educators to continuously upgrade their knowledge and skills. Regarding the second question, due to the unavailability of programmes that prepare prospective teacher educators and the inadequacy of the support provided for their continuing PD (European Commission 2013; InFo-TED 2019), collaborative learning with peer teacher educators has emerged as one of the best sources of their professional learning for teacher educators’ PD (see Kosnik, Menna, Dharamshi, Miyata, Cleovoulou & Beck 2015; Smith 2017; Van der Klink, Kools, Avissar, White & Sakata 2017). This is especially true because team-based learning produces a significant impact on the PD of teacher educators (Barak, Gidron & Turniansky 2010). Meaningful interactions and engagement with each other in a learning community stimulate their intellectual curiosity, have a direct impact on their productive learning and contribute to effective teaching practices of the educators (Woo & Reeves 2007). Further, through collaborative learning, educators can improve communication with their colleagues, expand their network and gain support for their PD (DuFour 2004; Frady 2012). However, despite the potential of learning communities for enhancing teacher educators’ PD, arranging in-person group meetings in a global pandemic era is a formidable challenge. Furthermore, due to advancements in information technology, the modern world has contracted in space and time, and all parts of the globe are connected through the Internet. Increasingly, people are using the Internet and related technological devices in all aspects of their lives. According to the Internet World Stats, a total of 5,168,780,607 (65.6%) out of the global population of 7,875,765,587 are using the Internet, and the growth rate of Internet usage from 2000 to 2021 was reported to be 1,331.9%. 1 1 https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm 1 Responding to the needs of the changing world due to the rapid improvement in information technology and addressing the challenges posed by the COVID-19 crisis, online learning platforms facilitate teacher educators’ pursuit of PD, because they are created as “critical spaces designed for critical times” (Albers, Cho, Shin, Pang, Angay-Crowder, Jung, Pace, Sena & Turnbull 2015:48). Online learning platforms are more accessible to people in remote locations, economical in terms of money and time and more convenient to use as they do not involve travel. As such, online learning platforms can serve as a potential means for providing PD to teaching professionals, especially in the era of a global pandemic. This chapter describes how a PD activity, namely, the “Webinar Series on Teacher Educators’ Professional Development” connected teacher educators from different countries, mainly from Africa and Asia. It provides a detailed description of how each webinar was organised and also discusses the issue of partnership in teacher educators’ professional learning. Finally, the chapter presents a discussion of the advantages and challenges of the webinar series. 8.2 PD of Teacher Educators: A Learning Community Including the Online Community Various PD activities are available for teachers and teacher educators that provide implicit ways of learning or intentional actions for up-skilling them in their professional lives, through formal or informal means and individual or group activities (Kosnik et al. 2015; Lunenberg et al. 2014). Formal PD activities are often presented in a well-structured format and attendance may be mandatory. For example, attending academic seminars and conferences, capacity-building programmes, short-term and long-term training and engaging in self-study or action research). Conversely, informal PD is not entirely compulsory and can be pursued individually or in groups, for example, reading literature, reflection, team planning and team teaching (Kosnik et al. 2015). During individual PD activities, teachers and teacher educators engage in reading literature, reflection, and self-studies without the need to interact with others (Lunenberg et al. 2014). Collaborative PD activities, which have been identified by Kosnik et al. (2015:56) as “communities of practice”, are likely to be formalised with a fixed structure, but are not compulsory. In such communities of practice, those belonging to the same field and having shared interests assemble and collaborate to learn together, with mutual sharing of experiences and finding solutions for common issues existing in their field (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder 2002). Participating in PD courses and programmes is popular and widely pursued by teacher educators (Lunenberg et al., 2014) and are considered to be traditional PD activities (Wambugu 2018). In such traditional PD activities, teachers and teacher educators attend in-person courses requiring them to leave their workplaces in most cases. Consequently, such activities involve time and additional budget for coaching, equipment, facilities and travel. Although some school-based PD programmes exist, it remains difficult to meet experts and other professionals in the field. Moreover, conducting these traditional PD programmes almost seems to be impossible in this COVID-19 global pandemic era, which requires everybody to stay at home and observe preventive measures. To overcome the challenges mentioned above, online learning platforms are an innovative means through which teaching professionals can pursue PD. In an online learning community, a group of individuals with shared interests and concerns related to a particular topic or field gather and collaborate for a common purpose via online communication networks. The only difference between the learning community and online learning community is that communication occurs in the traditional face-to-face manner in the former and through technology-aided materials in the latter (Bostancioğlu 2016). Online learning communities as virtual learning environments employ technology-aided materials and enable participating members to meet conveniently with experts and colleagues, which is very economical in terms of time and money (Bostancioğlu 2016; Vanderlinde, Bain, Lunenberg, Meijer, Murray, O’Sullivan & Walraven 2017). Unlike in-person conferences or seminars, online conferences can be attended by participants and educators from anywhere in the world and allow them to engage in professional learning entirely by using technology-aided materials, without any need for face-to-face interactions. Instead, their interaction and learning take place online, for example, through video conferencing via the web (Bostancioğlu 2016; Johnson 2001). Therefore, online learning communities, which are more flexible and accessible, pave the way for distance learning and the extension of networks for further collaboration (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson & Orphanos 2009; Lay, Allman, Cutri & Kimmons 2020). The development of online platforms for PD has been possible with the advancement of information technology. Online learning environments with an on-demand nature have become popular among teaching professionals as an alternative way for pursuing their PD (Donavant 2009). Within the last few decades, online learning environments have experienced massive growth due to rapid advancements in technology. The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the need for design and participation in online courses and programmes (Lay et al. 2020), and online learning platforms developed for educational purposes have become more prevalent than ever. Indeed, participation in online learning is no longer a trend or an option, but a part of mainstream education and a necessity in this COVID-19 global crisis. Learning communities, including online learning communities, originated from the social learning theory (Vygotsky 1978) and situated learning (Lave & Wenger 1991), which commonly highlight the crucial role of social interactions in people’s learning and the development of insights. According to the social learning theory, learning starts with the establishment of interpersonal relationships that later on are helpful for intra-personal development (Vygotsky 1978). The four main components of social learning theory include:

1. A “community” that focuses on learning as belonging;

2. An “identity” that considers learning as becoming;

3. A “meaning” that refers to learning through our experiences of the social world and

4. A “practice” that can be viewed as learning while participating in an activity. (Bostancioğlu 2016:23)

From the perspective of social learning theory, there is a connection between external support (i.e., the zone of proximal development [ZPD]) and individual development, and scaffolding is crucial for ZPD (Vygotsky 1978). In professional learning communities, regardless of the learning modes (e.g., face-to-face or online), participants are supported by ‘vertical scaffolding’ from experts and facilitators and ‘horizontal scaffolding’ through collaboration with peers (Dille & Røkenes 2021). Based on social learning theory, Lave and Wenger developed the situated learning framework in the 1990s. The key idea is that learning occurs through social interactions among individuals in a social world. Communities of practices, which are often synonymously described as learning communities (Frady 2012), including online learning communities, can be described as “a group of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly” (Wenger 2006:1). Such communities can also be characterised by ‘mutual engagement’ which engenders meaningful interactions among the members, binds them together as a professional group (Wenger et al. 2002), and builds a sense of belongingness to a social community (Bostancioğlu 2016). According to Wenger et al. (2002), interactions among members having common interests and purposes are regarded as a community of practice, where community members engage in doing something together (e.g., studying together and exchanging ideas with each other) and pursuing certain outcomes together (through the use of articles, documents, tools, etc.). In this article, the use of social learning theory and situated learning framework for the educators’ PD suggests that teacher educators, through participation in the webinar series on teacher educators’ PD, have rich opportunities to benefit from vertical scaffolding from experts and facilitators and horizontal scaffolding by learning from their peers. The scaffolding not only helps in upgrading their ZPD but also enhances their professional knowledge and skills. 8.3 Webinar Series as Online Professional Learning Communities The webinar has distinctive virtual interaction features and is convenient for building social networks (Smirnova, Kamenez, Vaganova, Kutepova & Vezetiu 2019), and it is a kind of online learning platform that is not only progressive but also promising for professional learning. In the past two years, the popularity of webinars has increased because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and these online seminars have become a staple in the area of education. Online learning platforms such as webinars are created as critical spaces for critical times (Albers et al. 2015) and they not only provide open access to scholarship but also help the participants update their knowledge with respect to the use of information technology for professional learning. Considering that the quality of teacher educators is a contributing factor in providing quality education, the webinar series on teacher educators’ PD was organised by a group of scholars of different nationalities from Asia and Africa. The webinars were hosted by the Human Resource Development for Education Research Lab, the Asia Pacific and Africa Teacher Education Cooperation Centre, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Science, Hiroshima University (Japan) and the Education Foundations Department at the University of Malawi (Malawi). The objectives of the webinar series are to build a cross-border self-study community of teacher educators and to facilitate collaboration among teacher educators in terms of conducting collaborative research and further professional learning activities in Africa and Asia. Launched in September 2020, a series of open-access webinars were live-streamed via the Zoom platform. Zoom, one of the most popular online platforms for meetings, can host participants synchronously in each webinar and allow smooth communication among the participants through the chat features, which enables them to be more interactive. Additionally, emoticons such as hand-raising or clapping symbols can be used for active participation, such as for asking questions, raising comments and contributing to a discussion. The medium of communication for all the webinars was English and among the international participants. Time and budget restrictions deter teacher educators from attending international conferences and seminars for scholarship and in pursuance of PD, whereas these open-access webinars do not require any registration or enrolment fees, and are designed to overcome these challenges. Led by teacher education experts, the webinars are organised quarterly every year. At the time of writing, four webinars had successfully been organised one year and two months after the series was initiated, and 14 presentations were delivered in total. Invitations seeking participation are sent by the organisers of the webinars to experienced teacher educators, including Africans and Asians, who are willing to make presentations. Calls for participation are announced by circulating flyers on social media platforms, such as Facebook, one month before each webinar. Those who are interested can easily and freely register by sending emails to the moderators or via a registration link. Although the webinars mainly focus on the PD of teacher educators in Africa and Asia, participants from other parts of the world are also welcome. Participants from 14 countries (Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malawi, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Africa, United States of America (USA), Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe) joined in all four webinars. In this webinar series, which attempted to facilitate teacher educators’ professional learning and to build further networks among African and Asian teacher educators, Dr Takayoshi Maki, professor of Human Resource Development for Education at Hiroshima University, Japan and the director of the Asia Pacific and Africa Teacher Education Cooperation Centre, continuously contributed. As the leader of a current research project on the comparative study of teacher educators’ identity and professional lives in Asia and Africa and as ‘a third-order practitioner’ providing education to teacher educators who are ‘second-order practitioners’ in the teaching profession (Murray & Male 2005), he provides continuous support both academically and technically for conducting the webinar series. Furthermore, two outstanding scholars in the teacher education field from Africa, namely Mr Foster Gondwe 2 2 Dr Foster Gondwe completed his PhD in Education in September 2021. He is currently working as a lecturer in the Education Foundations Department, School of Education, University of Malawi, Malawi. 2 (Lecturer, Educational Foundations Department, School of Education, University of Malawi, Malawi) and Ms Mercy Mushani (Coordinator, District Resource Centre, Ministry of General Education, Zambia), served as moderators in all the webinars. The two moderators are doctoral students at Hiroshima University, and their research mainly focuses on teacher educators’ PD and science education. According to Gikandi and Morrow (2016), the role of an expert teacher educator and moderator is to provide vertical support for the progress of teacher educators’ professional learning, motivating them, facilitating interactive discussions among the participants and providing relevant and constructive feedback wherever necessary. Generally, webinars have the same format, comprising four main sessions. At the beginning of every webinar, an introductory speech is delivered by the moderators, which is followed by presentations by each of the presenters. The next session is the question-and-answer session, which is open for the participants to raise questions, give comments and engage in discussions. However, participants are also encouraged to ask questions and share their views with each presenter using the Zoom chat box at any time. Finally, one of the moderators briefly highlights the main points of the webinar before proposing a vote of thanks. After each webinar, the participants are asked to respond to a follow-up survey, seeking suggestions for further improvements in future webinars. Specifically, feedback is obtained from the participants through questions such as:

• What were your expectations from the webinar?

• Did the webinar meet your expectations?

• What would you recommend us to change in the next webinar?

• Would you like to present in the next webinar? and

• How can other researchers connect with you? (e.g., through Facebook, LinkedIn, email or any other mode of communication).

These questions are asked so that future webinars can be improved based on the feedback. Furthermore, upon successful completion of the webinars, certificates of participation are awarded to those who request them. The following subsections provide a detailed account of each webinar. 8.3.1 First Webinar The first webinar on the PD of teacher educators was held on 10 September 2020 with the theme “Trends in the Professional Development of Teacher Educators: Activities, Contents, and Potential”. It included five presentations contributed by teacher educators from different countries. Although it was the first webinar, it succeeded in drawing the attention of an international audience, and participants from nine countries, namely, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Malawi, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Vietnam and Zambia. At the beginning of the webinar, Prof. Takayoshi Maki (Hiroshima University, Japan) delivered a keynote speech titled “Who are We? How Do We Want to Be? A Japanese Teacher Educator’s Perspective” and introduced key concepts related to the PD of teacher educators. The key concepts, including ‘teacher educator’ and ‘roles and identity of a teacher educator’ were clarified through reflections on the following key questions: “How did I become a teacher educator?”, “What do I know?” and “What are my strengths?”. Moreover, by presenting a list of knowledge domains and learning opportunities to the teacher educators, the keynote helped the audience reflect on what teacher educators know and how they are able to pursue PD. Further, by posing the key questions for the way forward, such as “How do we want to be?” and “What are proper knowledge and skills (competency)?”, the keynote speech guided the audience to reflect on the goal they would want to achieve as teacher educators. The keynote speech and the key questions raised at the very outset seemed to be critically important for moving forward not only in the webinar but also in our professional lives as teacher educators. The keynote address was followed by presentations on the following titles:

• Presentation 1: Implementation of continuing professional development for primary school teachers in Malawi (presented by a senior research fellow and acting director, Centre for Education Research and Training, University of Malawi, Malawi)

• Presentation 2: The rapidly changing curriculum landscape in Zambia and implications for teacher educators (presented by a senior lecturer, School of Education, University of Zambia, Zambia)

• Presentation 3: Teacher Education Institutions reforms in Cambodia (presented by an associate lecturer, Phnom Penh Teacher Education College, Cambodia)

• Presentation 4: Work and professional development of teacher educators in the context of education colleges: Reforms in Myanmar (presented by two assistant lecturers, Lashio Education Degree College and Hakha Education Degree College, Myanmar)

• Presentation 5: Nurturing science, technology, and mathematics education (presented by a senior lecturer and education technology specialist, Osun State University, Nigeria)

8.3.2 Second Webinar The second webinar held on 17 December 2020 on the theme “Professional Development Challenges Facing Teacher Educators” was attended by 33 participants from Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Malawi, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Africa, USA, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Interestingly, in addition to scholars from Asia and Africa, a professor from the USA also made a presentation. The presentations revealed that there are challenges associated with teacher educators, which stem either from the teacher education system or from practical problems, irrespective of the location. Some common challenges discussed in this webinar included how to balance teacher educators’ professional roles as teachers and researchers, no confidence due to a lack of preparation to be a university teacher, how to integrate technology in the teaching-learning process and how to balance what teacher educators want to teach and what they are supposed to teach because of state control or standards. The three main presentations made by scholars were:

• Presentation 1: Professional development of Japanese teacher educators (presented by an assistant professor in the International Education Development Program at the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan)

• Presentation 2: Standardising productive teaching practices: Malawi mathematics curriculum content analysis (presented by an associate professor and a specialist in mathematics education, assessment, and instructional technology, Alma College, USA)

• Presentation 3: Challenges in teacher education in the 21st century (presented by an Associate Professor, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa)

8.3.3 Third Webinar The third webinar was held on 25 March 2021 with the theme “Professional Development of Medical and Teacher Education Professionals”. The webinar’s scope was extended to professionals in the field of medical education, and featured presentations and discussions related to the two main fields: medical and teacher education. Participants from Cambodia, Japan, Malawi, Mongolia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe attended the webinar. In the webinar, conflicts and challenges for twenty-first-century teacher educators, experiences of preparing university teachers and ways to enhance PD were discussed. The list of presentations was:

• Presentation 1: Dilemmas of a 21st-century teacher educator in the light of the constructivists’ approaches in teaching: A case of Zambia (presented by a lecturer and coordinator, School of Education, University of Zambia, Zambia)

• Presentation 2: Experience of Preparing Future Faculty Program in Education at Hiroshima University (presented by an Associate Professor, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan)

• Presentation 3: 3 3 Unfortunately, this presentation could not be implemented due to the presenter’s personal reasons, although planned in the schedule. Instead, the conversation between the webinar organiser and this presenter about challenges faced 3 Challenges in teacher education in the 21st century (presented by an Associate Professor, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa)

8.3.4 Fourth Webinar The fourth webinar was held on 10 June 2021 and it focused on “Issues and Solutions of Teacher Educators’ Teaching about Teaching” to address the teaching aspect of teacher educators’ roles and their identities. A professor from Zambia, who was also a speaker at the third webinar, took the stage. Moreover, for this webinar, the speakers were chosen to provide a deeper, three-dimensional understanding of the issues being faced by teacher educators. This was achieved by pairing the teacher educators and their supervisory students to take the stage, and a total of four presentations were made by the contributors Attendees were from Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The main features of the webinar were detailed illustrations of principles in teaching a particular subject, such as physics. Some of the interesting points of discussion in the webinar were how to integrate research and teaching, specifically teaching through action research and science education research. The titles of the presentations were

• Presentation 1: Science teacher educators’ experiences of challenges and solutions for teaching about teaching in pre-service teacher education: A case of Zambia (presented by a lecturer and coordinator, School of Education, University of Zambia, Zambia)

• Presentation 2: Existence and application of the principles of teaching Physics in Physics lessons (presented by a senior lecturer, Physics Education at Mufulira College of Education, Zambia)

• Presentation 3: How do I teach pre-service teachers about teaching through classroom action research? (presented by an associate professor, Faculty of Education, Kasetsart University, Thailand)

• Presentation 4: Science education research to practices (presented by a PhD student, Science Education, Faculty of Education, Kasetsart University, Thailand)

8.4. Advantages and Challenges of the Webinar Series 8.4.1 Advantages Through the webinar series, designed to respond to the call of the modern world and to address the challenges posed by the COVID-19 crisis, participants could join an international education forum and engage in informal and/or formal collaboration. By participating in programmes organised on such online platforms, one can learn very conveniently in the comfort of one’s home or workplace or from anywhere, right at their fingertips, coupled with affordability. Through this web-based series of seminars for online learning, teacher educators can find adequate space to interact with more collaborative communities and pursue PD activities. Due to the network extended by this webinar series, teacher educators from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology in South Africa and Hiroshima University, who were introduced to each other during the webinar, later applied for a joint research grant for a comparative study to explore ICT-based teacher preparation in the two countries. Additionally, as a means of two-way communication among the participants, these synchronous live-streamed webinars via Zoom create actual and concurrent interactivity, where attendees can share their queries, get immediate responses and feedback and engage in interactive discussions, which are not feasible with other asynchronous online learning platforms. The professional relationship and the will to work together on academic assignments, brought about by the dynamic interactions, can be strengthened through these webinars. They also help in the development of a sense of belongingness to the teacher educators’ community, as elaborated by scholars (see Bostancioğlu 2016; Carpenter & Munshower 2020). One of the best parts of these webinars is the engaging and interactive discussions that can be conducted among the teacher educators. The attendees freely expressed the challenges they faced and their concerns regarding their PD and those pertaining to teacher education in their work institution and country contexts. In the second, third, and fourth webinars, presenters illustrated their struggles in their professional lives as teacher educators and how they tried to tackle those issues, for example, a lack of teaching experience at the university level, and dilemmas pertaining to research and teaching. An example of such an interactive discussion is that of the presenter of ‘Challenges in teacher education in the 21st century’ in the second webinar. An attendee raised a pertinent and practical question: “How can we control or handle the unintended consequences of integrating technology to our teaching?”. The presenter shared her experiences and insights as follows: “It’s all about the teacher educator’s creativity and pedagogy used in the lesson. We need to think about the difference between technology integration and using technology in the classroom properly”. One valuable merit of the webinars is that the answer or response is not limited only to the presenter, but is open to everyone who wishes to contribute. Another participant observed, “We also need to understand the available technology and consider learner autonomy. It is important to carefully choose materials that meet learners’ needs”. The scholars further agreed that teacher education needs to move its focus from pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to technological PCK. Hence, the webinars, through deep reflections, dynamic interactions and constructive communication among the participants, paved the way for teacher educators to share their experiences and expertise, and collaborate in solving real-world issues within the field, as described by Albers, Pace and Brown (2013). In addition to providing greater opportunities for free learning by interacting with the experts in the field and the seniors, the participants in these webinars are acknowledged as experienced educators, allowing them to share their experiences, insights and perspectives as reported by Albers et al. (2015) that positioning participants as knowledgeable professionals is an effective means for PD activities. As such, these online seminars are customised to include not only vertical support from experts and facilitators but also horizontal support from peers, and position teacher educators as experienced and learned people, taking account of their opinions, and participants can benefit from the effective professional learning (Bayer 2014; Dille & Røkenes 2021). In this sense, these online seminars prove to be an effective means through which professional learning can be pursued by teacher educators. The webinars also facilitate the engagement of the teacher educators in autonomous learning, and hence, they actively pursue PD with increased interest and motivation. As claimed by Albers et al. (2015), willingness is a prerequisite for them to learn both cognitively and emotionally, and voluntary participation in the webinar series offers great opportunities for their cognitive and emotional learning. Additionally, this virtual learning environment, using technological materials, helps to reduce the ICT phobia in those who are not familiar with ICT tools. Carpenter and Munshower (2020) reported that participation in an online learning programme resulted in increased satisfaction with the use of online learning platforms and a decrease in fear of technology among the participants. Therefore, this webinar series also served as a catalyst for upgrading teacher educators’ ICT skills, which is a requirement to survive as an academician nowadays. What is more intriguing is that through inspiration and encouragement provided by the experts and instrumental support by the facilitators, teacher educators’ zone of proximal development could be enhanced, as suggested by Vygotsky (1978). 8.4.2 Challenges Although the webinar series brought forth the potential advantages and progress in teacher educators’ PD, certain challenges are also present. One of the biggest challenges pertains to the Internet and information technology infrastructure, which greatly impacts the quality of online learning. Although a stable Internet connection is crucial for online learning, not all countries can ensure its availability. This issue is more prominent in developing countries, where several participants were from. Another challenge related to this unequal distribution of Internet infrastructure is the digital divide and diverse levels of digital literacy, which might widen the inequality gap among participants from different countries. Although the webinars are affordable and convenient, electronic material resources are basic needs for attendees to join the webinars and may have been unavailable in some cases The second challenge concerns the online learning environment. As Gunawardena, Ortegano-Layne, Carabajal, Frechette, Lindemann and Jennings (2006) pointed out the superficial nature of the online learning environment, communication through this webinar series might not go in-depth because it naturally requires some time to establish rapport and trust among participants, so that opinions can be shared without any hesitation within the online learning communities. Consequently, the participants mostly gave consensus-driven rather than critical comments. Moreover, despite active participation by many of the participants, others hardly showed their faces throughout the webinars. This might further affect trust building among group members, which is a vital factor in learning communities. In an unfamiliar setting, participants tend to hide their actual feelings because they fear humiliation and the judgmental attitudes of others (MacPhail, Ulvik, Guberman, Czerniawski, Oolbekkink-Marchand & Bain, 2019). Additionally, participants might have a shorter attention span in virtual learning environments compared to traditional face-to-face learning situations. In such cases, we are not sure whether all participants were fully attentive. The third challenge is related to the use of Zoom, in which sudden noises and disturbances from some unmuted participants were observed. Additionally, since the webinar series are live-streamed, time differences between countries are unavoidable. For example, it is morning in Michigan, USA (early morning at 3:00 am) and in Cape Town, South Africa (10:00 am), while it is evening in Hiroshima, Japan (17:00 pm). Lastly, as COVID-19 poses challenges in many aspects of our lives, it also impacted this webinar series. The fifth webinar, which was initially scheduled for September 2021, had to be postponed to December 2021 because of the severe outbreak of COVID-19. 8.5 Conclusion The webinar series served as a package for the PD of teacher educators: it explored the trends and policies of teacher education and teacher educators’ PD in the first webinar, the challenges of teacher educators’ PD in the second, the PD of medical and teacher education professionals in the third and issues and solutions of teacher educators’ teaching in the fourth. To sum up, the webinar series ultimately contributed to addressing the two main professional learning needs of teacher educators identified by Vanderlinde et al. (2017:6): “pedagogic”, practical-based or related to day-to-day tasks and “academic” or learning-based (i.e., how to progress in one’s academic career with a strong focus on research). By facilitating teacher educators’ professional learning and establishing connections for further networks, this webinar series for teacher educators’ PD provides a solution to the global issue (i.e., the need for support for teacher educators’ PD). As a means of providing continued support to the teacher educators’ PD, the fifth webinar of the ongoing series was scheduled for December 2021 with the theme “Teacher Educators’ Professional Development: A Comparative Study on Teacher Educators’ Expected Roles in Africa and Southeast Asia”. More active discussions are expected based on the case reports and comparative analysis of the five countries namely, Zambia, Malawi, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Undoubtedly, teacher educators have a crucial role in providing quality education at all levels, and the importance of their PD cannot be exaggerated. 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Associate Professor Osaka University Japan sakaguchi.masayasu.hus@osaka-u.ac.jp 9.1 Introduction This chapter returns with a wide-angle view, discussing the possibilities of a platform for international collaborative research 1

contribution to this webinar.by teacher educators in Japan and Zambia took place as a

by focusing on the schemes of Japan and South Africa (SA). First, this chapter analyses the characteristics of each country’s government and relevant research funding organisations. More specifically, it focuses on the characteristics of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) when analysing the case of Japan, and the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) in the context of SA. 2 1 As Masaki (2020:31) discusses, “international collaborative research” varies from conducting individual research and publishing books with researchers from other countries to conducting cross-border research to tackle a challenging task common to multiple countries. Second, the chapter compares the characteristics of the above-mentioned education departments and organisations from the perspective of international collaborative research. Finally, this chapter discusses the salient points and prospects for the development of a platform for international collaborative research. According to Ito, in the 1990s, there was growing interest “in the international society on global issues”, such as disasters and terrorism. Therefore, international cooperation morphed into “multi-layered cooperation” (Ito 2016:206). Furthermore, Ito mentions that in the field of advanced research, objectives and information have become “bigger, more complex, and broader”. Thus, more “multilateral research cooperation with several countries” has taken place (Ito 2016:206). In that sense, as Sooryamoorthy (2013:1) states, “[s]cience is no longer a centralised activity located in a single place, but is dispersed far and wide”. Indeed, as Ito also indicates, “in the present globalised society, researchers cross borders”, and they are enmeshed in a situation characterised by “big brain circulation” (Ito 2016:202). As Zhou, Cai, and Lyu (2020:1345) note, “[i]nternational collaboration is important to promote the development of science”. Nowadays, conducting international collaborative research can be considered one of the keys to promoting scientific advancements. When exploring the world of science, as Zhou et al. (2020:1332) state, “[g]overnment funding plays a significant role in the development of science, and has attracted extensive interests from [the] academic community”. Certainly, “[f]unding support plays a critical role in scientific research” (Zhou et al. 2020:1343). From these statements, it can be inferred that it is important to explore the roles of governments and/or research funding organisations when discussing international collaborative research. It is important to note here that, as Madonda mentions, the two countries focused on in this chapter—Japan and SA—“signed an agreement on cooperation in science and technology” in 2003, and the NRF, JSPS and other organisations played responsible roles in the implementation process (Madonda 2015:31). According to the NRF, the “main objective of the collaboration is to contribute to scientific advancement in both countries through the funding of joint research activities in specified research fields”. 3 2 This chapter is based on the information collected by 20 November 2021. Thus, it is important to understand that some of the characteristics of the four institutions have changed since that time (e.g., the name of funding). Also, it needs to be noted that some of the URL links in this chapter are no longer available online). Madonda stated that researchers from both countries have “strengthened relations and collaborations by hosting activities like exchange of researchers, students and experts; jointly organised conferences, symposia, workshops, exhibitions and training courses”, and that the “joint research projects have advanced into world class research discoveries aiming at improving the lives of the citizens of both countries and the world at large” (Madonda 2015:31). An example of a platform for collaboration between Japan and SA is the “South Africa-Japan University Forum”. 4 3 NRF website. South Africa/Japan Joint Science and Technology Research Collaboration Call for Joint Project Proposals 2015. https://www.nrf.ac.za/division/gmsa-irc/funding/south-africajapan-joint-science-and-technology-research-collaboration-call [20 November 2021]. It was founded in 2007, and “provides a dedicated and strategic platform for research and development engagement between higher education institutions in the two countries”. 5 4 NRF website. In support of the SDGs: SA-Japan University Forum, Tokyo, Japan. https://www.nrf.ac.za/media-room/news/support-sdgs-sa-japan-university-forum-tokyo-japan [20 November 2021]. At its third gathering in 2017, its members reiterated the plans, such as “[e]stablish periodically opportunities such as joint academic seminars to share research interests, achievements and perspectives and to discuss possibilities for collaboration” to “[a]ctively share information on funding programmes to promote academic cooperation and joint projects” and to “[e]stablish, share, and implement concrete programmes and projects for academic exchange, human development, and cooperation with society, including the private sector, international organizations, and NGO”. 6 5 Ibid. Since Japan and SA have been conducting international collaborative research for more than a decade, it is imperative to compare the characteristics of Japan (MEXT and JSPS) and SA (DHET and NRF) to identify salient points for discussions on international collaborative research. As Zhou et al. discussed, “[b]oth funding and international collaboration play vital roles in scientific research but were treated in isolation in many studies” (Zhou et al., 2020:1332). Thus, it is crucial to explore the characteristics of research funding for international collaborative research, especially as the characteristics of the funding for such research in Japan and SA have not been compared or discussed much in previous studies. 9.2 The Japanese Scheme (MEXT and JSPS) 9.2.1 A Brief Introduction to International Collaborative Research in Japan As Ito indicates, “the history of state-led international science and technology cooperation is short” in Japan (Ito 2016:206). It appears that Japan is facing “a delay in the internationalisation of research developments”. Therefore, researchers are “isolated from an international brain circulation” and are enmeshed in a situation of “galapagosisation” (Ito 2016:203). In fact, as Murakami (2016:130) states, “Japan is known as a country which has few international collaborative research”. This phenomenon is evident in the field of international co-authored papers. Notably, the rate of international co-authored papers in Japan tends to be relatively low (see Igami, Saka & Nagaoka 2016:157; Ito 2016:203). Igami et al. also stated that “it is important to increase involvement in knowledge production in the world through international collaborative research in order to increase the diversity of our country’s [Japan’s] research” (Igami et al. 2016:157). Based on the context, it can be concluded that, so far, Japan has not been deeply contributing to the field of international collaborative research compared with other scientifically advanced countries. On another front, Japan has recently promoted “collaborative research with overseas [researchers], including international science and technology cooperation” to play “an important role for science and technology”’ (Ito 2016:202). Additionally, Murakami (2016:130) has noted that Japan is promoting international collaborative research to “establish international research networks and build a system for making the most of knowledge resources across the world efficiently in order to increase Japanese competitiveness”. Consequently, it can be inferred that a strong emphasis has recently been placed on international collaborative research in the field of science in Japan, which begs the following question: How is such research being promoted by MEXT and the JSPS? 9.2.2 Overview of MEXT and International Collaborative Research Saruwatari, Sasaki, and Sato (2016:200) have noted that universities in Japan have been, under the direction of the MEXT, “working on reinforcing governance for the purpose of increasing [Japan’s] world presence by conducting international alignment activities”. For example, on MEXT’s webpage, “Strategic Promotion of International Activities in the Fields of Science, Technology and Academics”, it is stated that MEXT “is promoting collaborative research with each country in the world, and science and technology cooperation such as personal exchanges and cooperation to international organisations”. 7 6 Ibid. MEXT introduced a project called “The Top Global University Project” in 2014. It aims “to enhance the international compatibility and competitiveness of higher education in Japan” and “provides prioritized support for top world-class and highly innovative universities that can lead the internationalization of Japanese universities”. 8 7 MEXT website. Kagaku Gijyutsu niokeru Kokusai Katsudou no Senryakuteki Suishin [Strategic Promotion of International Furthermore, the “International Strategy of the MEXT”, which was announced in 2005, emphasises means of enhancing Japan’s “international competitiveness” in the age of globalisation. 9

Activities in the Fields of Science, Technology and Academic]. [20 November 2021]. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kagaku/kokusai/index.htm

Specifically, it states that to reinforce Japan’s “international competitiveness” and promote “competition, collaboration, and cooperation between international universities”, efforts need to be made, especially in the field of science and technology—in which Japan occupies a “leading position”—and it is important to grasp any field of study in which Japan’s performance is excellent or inferior, while focusing on providing funding for the field. 10 8 JSPS website. Top Global University Project. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-tgu/ [20 November 2021]. Additionally, regarding funding, it has been said that “there is a need to make a maximum effort in order to get closer to the public spending of Western countries and establish a plural and detailed funding system for tertiary education”, so that education can play an important role in advancing “national strategies such as international competitiveness”. 11 9 MEXT website. Monbu Kagakusho niokeru Kokusai Senryaku (Teigen) Hajimeni [International Strategy of the MEXT (Advocates) Introduction]. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/senryaku/teigen/05092901/001.htm [19 November 2021]. Moreover, there is a section in the strategy for the “Promotion of Exchanges between Researchers and Promotion of International Collaborative Research on Regional Common Tasks”, 12 10 MEXT website. 1. Sekai Daikyoudou Jidai niokeru Wagakuni no Kokusai Kyousouryoku no Kyoka [1. Reinforcement of International Competitiveness of Our Country in the Era of Great World Competition]. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/senryaku/teigen/05092901/002.htm [19 November 2021]. according to which, “it is important to develop friendly relationships with foreign countries through science, technology, and academic exchanges, especially in Asian countries”. 13 11 Ibid. From these texts, it can be concluded that international collaborative research is considered an important issue by MEXT, especially on the Asian continent. However, it is important to mention the challenges of international collaborative research in Japan in terms of research funding. Tsunogae (2018:50) indicates that “since the 1980s, while neoliberal reform was progressing, the tendency to suppress the national costs of tertiary education has become common” and “researchers gradually have become exposed to a competitive environment for acquiring research funds”. Additionally, Saruwatari et al. (2016:197) state that “especially in the national universities, nowadays, while management grants continue to decrease, universities generating research funds strategically are highly needed”. Therefore, it is important to consider the role of the system for research funding in promoting international collaborative research in Japan. Thus, this chapter explores the case of the JSPS. 9.2.3 Overview of the JSPS and International Collaborative Research The JSPS is “an independent administrative institution, established by way of a national law for the purpose of contributing to the advancement of science in all fields of the natural and social sciences and the humanities”. 14 12 MEXT website. 2. Wagakuni no Sofuto Pawa no Zoukyou [2. Strengthening the Soft Power of Our Country]. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/senryaku/teigen/05092901/003.htm [19 November 2021]. Its “operation is supported in large part by annual subsidies from the Japanese Government” and it mainly functions to “foster young researchers”, “promote international scientific cooperation”, “award Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research”, “support scientific cooperation between the academic community and industry” and “collect and distribute information on scientific research activities”. 15 13 Ibid. Several programmes within the JSPS are related to international collaborative research. For example, they include the “Fund for the Promotion of Joint International Research”, which consists of “Fostering Joint International Research”, “International Activities Supporting Group” and “Home-Returning Researcher Development Research”. 16 14 JSPS website. About Us. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/aboutus/index2.html [20 November 2021]. Regarding “Fostering Joint International Research”, there are two types (A and B) within the programme. On the one hand, type A supports the “joint international research project”, enabled by the JSPS grants “in collaboration with researcher(s) at foreign university or research institutions” and “seeks to markedly advance research plans for the root research project and to foster independent researchers who can be internationally competitive”. 17 15 Ibid. On the other hand, type B supports a “joint international research project conducted by multiple domestic researchers and a researcher who belongs to [an] overseas research institution” and “seeks to build out [an] infrastructure of joint international research or further strengthen joint international research and to foster researchers who can be internationally competitive”. 18 16 JSPS website. Programs. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/programs/index.html [20 November 2021]. It can be also noted that in the JSPS’s grant programmes, there are ones which mainly focus on international collaborative research. 19 17 JSPS website. Types of Grants Programs. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html [20 November 2021]. For example, the “International Joint Research Program” aims to advance “collaborative research between excellent researchers in Japanese universities and institutes and their overseas colleagues, while providing opportunities for young researchers to hone their skills”. 20 18 Ibid. The “Bilateral Programs” mention that the “JSPS promotes international scientific exchanges between Japan and counterpart countries in accordance with agreements or memoranda of understanding concluded with academies, research councils and other science-promotion organizations in those countries” and the programmes “mainly take the form of joint research projects, joint seminars and researcher exchanges”. 21 19 JSPS website. Programs. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/programs/index.html [20 November 2021]. In the “Core-to-Core Program”, two content areas—“Advanced Research Networks” and “Asia-Africa Science Platforms”—are established, and the purpose of the programme is explained as follows: 22 20 JSPS website. International Joint Research Program. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-bottom/index.html [20 November 2021]. This program is designed to create top world-class research centers that partner over the long term with other core research institutions around the world in advancing research in leading-edge fields, on issues of high international priority, and in areas that contribute to the solution of prevailing problems in the Asia-African regions. While advancing research in these fields and building core research and education hubs in the Asia and Africa, the Core-to-Core Program also concentrates on fostering the next generations of trailblazing young researchers. 23 21 JSPS website. Bilateral Programs. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-bilat/index.html [20 November 2021]. Through the programme “Inviting Excellent Researchers from Other Countries to Japan” (“JSPS International Fellowships for Research in Japan”), the JSPS provides “overseas researchers who have an excellent record of research achievements with an opportunity to conduct collaborative research, discussions, and opinion exchanges with researchers in Japan”. 24 22 JSPS website. Core-to-Core Program. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-c2c/index.html [20 November 2021]. From these explanations for each programme, it can be concluded that the JSPS offers several opportunities for research funding for international collaboration. Delving deeper into the field of research funding opportunities for “young researchers”, it can be observed that the JSPS offers several programmes. 25 23 Ibid. For example, the “Academic Workshops and Seminars for Young Researchers” programme states that based on “agreements with overseas partner research organizations”, the JSPS “carries out academic workshops and seminars to promote bilateral research collaboration in all research fields including the humanities and social sciences, while fostering young researchers and supporting scientific research based on the researchers’ own free ideas”. 26 24 JSPS website. Inviting Excellent Researchers from Other Countries to Japan. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-inv_researchers/index.html [20 November 2021]. Through the “Overseas Challenge Program for Young Researchers”, an opportunity is provided to doctoral students to “go overseas to challenge a new research environment, one in which they engage in joint research with researchers in other countries”. 27 25 JSPS website. Programs. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/programs/index.html [20 November 2021]. In the “Program for Advancing Strategic International Networks to Accelerate the Circulation of Talented Researchers”, the purpose is described as follows: This program works to foster excellent young Japanese researchers who will form the nucleus of networks that are formed by Japanese research groups with a high degree of potential, that draw upon the international circulation of good brains, and that carry out international joint research with top-ranked overseas research institutions. 28 26 JSPS website. Academic Workshops and Seminars for Young Researchers. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-asia_seminar/index.html [20 November 2021]. It also states that the above-mentioned aim should be achieved “by supporting Japanese universities and research institutions with programs to dispatch for long stays young Japanese researchers to counterpart countries and to invite researchers from those countries to Japan”. 29 27 JSPS website. Overseas Challenge Program for Young Researchers. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-abc/index.html [20 November 2021]. Based on the above, it can be seen that the JSPS is also keen on funding “young researchers” to promote international collaboration. 9.3 The Scheme in SA (DHET and NRF) 9.3.1 A Brief Introduction to International Collaborative Research in SA According to Onyancha (2011:100-101), SA experienced an “academic boycott” between “the 1960s and 1990 by the international academia” because of apartheid. Yet, “[r]esearch collaboration between South Africa and other countries has increased since 1986, with most of it being recorded after 1994”—the year SA’s first democratically elected government rose to power (Onyancha 2011:110). As Sooryamoorthy (2013:3) indicates, in SA, “scientific collaboration is an accepted practice among scientists, supported by the government, higher education institutions, research institutes, industry, the private sector and individual scientists”. Indeed, “[c]ollaboration has been considered as part and parcel of science, which is now promoted with vigour’ (Sooryamoorthy 2013:3). Subsequently, it is seen that since the abolishment of apartheid, SA has been actively involved in the field of international collaborative research. On another front, Ariail (2016:30) has noted that “SA has a number of world-class universities and is the higher education leader on the African continent”. Sooryamoorthy (2013:3) concurs that SA has taken “a leading role in collaboration with other African countries” and can be seen at the centre of international collaborative research on the African continent. Therefore, exploring the characteristics of the country’s policy and its attempts to provide opportunities for such research is vital not only for discussions on education in SA, but also for ones on education in Africa and the rest of the world. Moreover, as indicated by Onyancha (2011:11) below, it can be seen that SA has the potential to change the climate of international collaborative research and become a leader in science on the African continent: Unfortunately for Africa, most decisions about the subject areas of research collaboration, especially at the international level, are made by foreign countries which fund most research in developing countries. This affects South Africa to an extent. However, South Africa has the potential in terms of the available financial and human resources to dictate the choice of research focus areas for collaboration within and outside Africa. 9.3.2 Overview of the DHET and international collaborative research According to the DHET, in SA, “international engagements between institutions had been carried out in the absence of an official South African national policy on the internationalisation of higher education” until “the development of the Policy Framework for Internationalisation of Higher Education” (DHET 2019:12). Thus, the policy framework, of which the first draft was introduced in April 2017 (DHET 2017), can be said to play a vital role in the internationalisation of higher education in SA. The purpose of the policy framework is “to provide high-level principles and guidelines; to set broad parameters; and to provide a national framework for internationalisation of higher education within which higher education institutions can develop and align their institutional internationalisation policies and strategies” (DHET 2019:19). When exploring the policy framework related to international collaborative research, the section for ‘international research collaboration’ states that “[b]uilding, expanding and ensuring research collaboration between South African and international scientists and scholars – including the development of international research partnerships – is a high priority for South Africa” (DHET 2019:34). Additionally, this section states that “[t]he establishment and maintenance of international partnerships with governments, agencies and foundations across the world, in the interests of increasing access for South African scientists and scholars to international research funding opportunities and international research facilities, is a high priority” (DHET 2019:34). As inferred from these texts, promoting international collaborative research at tertiary institutions is one of the core components of the internationalisation of higher education in SA. Furthermore, the DHET outlines the “goals and targets” of the “internationalisation of higher education” in the National Development Plan 2030: Our Future – Make it Work (NPC 2012). For example, a “more stable funding model is needed for all educational institutions that conduct research” (NPC 2012:16). This statement could be a response to the issue that Ariail (2016:33) points out: “while the higher education system in SA is strong, it is in need of greater financial support from the government”. To further explain the system of research funding in the field of international collaborative research in SA, this chapter explores the characteristics of the NRF. 9.3.3 Overview of the NRF and International Collaborative Research The NRF is “an independent statutory body” established by a national law, which “funds research, the development of high-end Human Capacity and critical research infrastructure to promote knowledge production across all disciplinary fields”. 30 28 JSPS website. Program for Advancing Strategic International Networks to Accelerate the Circulation of Talented Researchers. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-zunoujunkan3/index.html [20 November 2021]. The target is described as follows: The goal of the NRF is to create innovative funding instruments, advance research career development, increase public science engagement and to establish leading-edge research platforms that will transform the scientific landscape and inspire a representative research community to aspire to global competitiveness. The NRF promotes South African research interests across the country and internationally, and together with research institutions, business, industry and international partners we build bridges between research communities for mutual benefit. 31 29 Ibid. According to Damonse (2019:26), the NRF is “[l]everaging partnerships within the continent and abroad” and it “uses its competitive advantage in supporting and promoting research excellence to accelerate engagements between countries on the African continent, in collaboration with international partners”. These descriptions indicate that the NRF plays an important role in promoting international collaborative research in SA by funding research in these areas. When exploring the characteristics of the NRF in the field of international collaborative research specifically, it can be noted that the International Relations and Cooperation (IRC) Directorate “plays a contributing role in the promotion of research excellence, with regards to the internationalisation of research and higher education, and in particular to the concerted focus on Africa within the NRF”. 32 30 NRF website. About NRF: Corporate Overview. https://www.nrf.ac.za/about-us/ [21 June 2021]. The missions of the IRC are described as follows:

• “To facilitate the generation and transfer of knowledge and technology to achieve international competitiveness for South Africa”,

• “To enhance international science collaboration (networking), especially amongst emergent and developing economies” and

• “To promote and support continental/regional scientific collaboration in order to contribute to socio-economic and sustainable growth on the African continent”. 33 31 Ibid.

Specifically, the IRC focuses on “African Cooperation”, “Overseas Cooperation”, “Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements”, and “Regional Cooperation”. 34 32 NRF website. International Relations and Cooperation. https://www.nrf.ac.za/division/irc/about [20 November 2021]. For example, through “African Cooperation”, “continental and regional scientific collaboration in order to contribute to socio-economic and sustainable growth on the African continent” are promoted and a “strong emphasis is placed on human capacity and skills development as the driver for promoting international competitiveness through knowledge transfer”. 35 33 Ibid. In “Overseas Cooperation”, “the Intergovernmental and Inter-agency Bilateral Agreements […] funding joint research projects and in the process ensures capacity building in key strategic areas” are ensured by working with the Department of Science and Technology (DST). 36 34 Ibid. When delving deeper into the “Overseas Cooperation” component of the IRC, it can be noted that the following four goals have been established:

1. “To promote local science and technology research and development in order to strategically position South Africa in the global arena”,

2. “To facilitate the generation and transfer of scientific knowledge and technology so as to increase South Africa’s international competitiveness”,

3. “To contribute to the socio-economic and sustainable development of South Africa through the promotion of international scientific collaboration” and

4. “To facilitate access to international opportunities for study and research for South African students and scientists.” 37 35 Ibid.

In the “Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements”, “the intergovernmental and interagency agreements by funding joint research projects and in the process ensures capacity building in key strategic areas” are ensured by working with the DST. 38 36 Ibid. “Regional Cooperation” is “facilitated primarily through the activities of the three units of the IRC with the main aim of promoting and supporting continental, regional and global scientific collaboration in order to contribute to socio-economic and sustainable growth of South Africa and the rest of the continent”. 39 37 NRF website. Overseas Cooperation Information Brochure. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/documents/Overseas%20Cooperation%20Information%20Brochure.pdf [20 November 2021]. As seen from these texts, the NRF offers a variety of funding options, from research to travel grants, to promote international collaborative research. Within the NRF, an emphasis seems to be placed on collaborative research with African countries. In “The National Research Foundation of South Africa: Fostering Science and Research Collaboration in Africa”, the “[g]overnment departments and higher education institutions in South Africa are actively working towards increasing collaboration between relevant role players on the continent and overseas to stimulate research and innovation, as well as to promote high-level capacity development”. 40 38 NRF website. International Relations and Cooperation. https://www.nrf.ac.za/division/irc/about [20 November 2021]. Also, when focusing on the programmes of the NRF in the category of “International Research Grants”, for example, there is a programme called the “BRICS STI Framework Programme” that aims “to support excellent research on priority areas which can best be addressed through a multinational approach”. 41 39 Ibid. Another programme called the “South Africa / Japan Joint Science and Technology Research Collaboration” aims to “contribute to scientific advancement in both countries through the funding of joint research activities in specified research fields” and “provide an opportunity for young researchers in the two countries to meet and interact”. 42 40 NRF website. The National Research Foundation of South Africa: Fostering Science and Research Collaboration in Africa. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/documents/NRF%20Africa%20Engagements_2015.pdf [20 November 2021]. Based on the context, it can be inferred that through these programmes, the NRF not only promotes collaborative research with African countries but also with a wider range of international actors, such as BRICS and Japan. Notably, similar to the JSPS, there is a programme for supporting international collaborative research for “young researchers” within the NRF. For example, the “Knowledge, Interchange and Collaboration” programme aims to “build and maintain excellence in South African research, rather than to only facilitate international collaboration”. 43 41 NRF website. BRICS Multilateral Call for Pre-Proposals 2021. https://www.nrf.ac.za/division/funding/brics-multilateral-call-pre-proposals-2021 [20 November 2021]. More specifically, the objectives of the programme are as follows:

• “internationalising South Africa’s research platforms”,

• “enhancing networking within the global science system, in particular the African science system” and

• “fostering collaboration in order to improve the quality of research outputs by researchers”.

The support components consist of items such as “Travel Grants for Individual Researchers (including attendance and participation in virtual events)” and “African Interaction”. 44 42 NRF website. South Africa / Japan Joint Science and Technology Research Collaboration: 2022 Call for Joint Research Proposals. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/SA%20-%20Japan%20%28JSPS%29%20Call%20for%20Joint%20Proposals_Final%20Framework.pdf [20 November 2021]. As seen from these texts, within the NRF programmes, there seems to be an emphasis on promoting international collaborative research among “young researchers”. 9.4 Discussion and Conclusion This chapter has analysed the characteristics of international collaborative research in Japan and South Africa. By comparing the characteristics of each country, it can be argued that regarding the promotion of international collaborative research by the relevant government bodies (MEXT and DHET) and funding institutions (JSPS and NRF), Japan and SA share several common characteristics. First, international collaborative research seems to be promoted as one of the core strategies for the development of scientific advancements (especially in Japan, where management grants from the government to national universities have been decreasing). Thus, there are a variety of funding types available for such research (e.g., research grants, travel grants, grants for seminars and workshops, etc.). Second, an emphasis seems to be placed on promoting collaborative research within the continent where a country is located, especially in SA. Additionally, the target country seems to play a leading role not only in the context of the continent where it is located but also in the international arena (e.g., SA emphasises collaboration with other BRICS countries). Third, it can be seen that an emphasis is placed on promoting opportunities for “young researchers” to conduct international collaborative research. Last, it is meaningful to discuss the fact that both countries place an emphasis not only on “collaboration” but also on “competition” in international collaborative research. To summarise, it is crucial to consider ways of maintaining a balance between the two objectives. Before concluding this chapter, discussions on the prospects for developing a platform for international collaborative research are presented, along with the phenomenon of promoting the humanities and social sciences and an examination of the need for collaboration between academia and businesses. Ito (2016:217) discusses the “new development of international collaborative research” and the fact that when “aiming at science and technology with society, the implementation of co-creation, which includes various stakeholders, such as researchers of the humanities and social sciences, the political and administrative sides, and general citizens, is desired in the early stage of research development”. Moreover, when considering the sixth Science, Technology and Innovation Basic Plan (Cabinet Office 2021:26), which aims to “promote international collaborative research by actively informing [the public] about our country’s [Japan’s] efforts internationally, to attempt to improve the Japanese presence and collect the wisdom of the research institutions of each country in the world”, it is meaningful to note that there is a section for the “Advancement of the Humanities and Social Sciences and Creation of Comprehensive Knowledge”. This section highlights that such fields are reinforced by collaborative research systems and promoted by funding bodies, which include the programmes of the JSPS (Cabinet Office 2021:56). As Oki (2021:43) discusses, from the sixth Science, Technology and Innovation Basic Plan, the “humanities and social sciences have officially become targets of advancement”. In this vein, it can be noted that the “Program for Constructing Data Infrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences” was announced by the JSPS to “promote joint researches domestically and internationally, thereby promoting humanities and social sciences through building a comprehensive system that researchers can utilize to share data on humanities and social sciences research across disciplines and countries while fostering a shared culture” and that the “Japan Data Catalog for the Humanities and Social Sciences” began “full-scale operations” in November 2021. 45 43 NRF website. Knowledge, Interchange and Collaboration (KIC) 2nd Call: Scientific Events/ Travel Grants 2021. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/KIC%20Review%20Period%202%20-%202021.pdf [20 November 2021]. Additionally, The Yomiuri Shinbun reported online on 18 November 2021 that the Japanese government had decided to “expand a research subsidy program from [the] next fiscal year to promote joint international research”. 46 44 Ibid. It will be implemented through the JSPS programmes, and the “program, which offers subsidies for a wide range of research including natural science, social science and the humanities, will be expanded to further promote cutting-edge research”. 47 45 JSPS website. Program for Constructing Data Infrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-di/index.html [20 November 2021]. Based on the context, it can be seen that increasing attention is being paid to the humanities and social sciences in the field of international collaborative research. As Sooryamoorthy (2013:1) mentions, the “production of scientific knowledge is no longer the monopoly of universities” and “[e]qually important are non-academic institutions, engaged in groundbreaking research”. Related to this statement, in SA, the National Development Plan 2030: Our Future – Make it Work states that “[t]he government must support collaboration between the business, academic and public sectors” (NPC 2012:327). Collaboration between the academic and industrial fields has also been promoted from the Japanese side. 48 46 The Yomiuri Shinbun. 2021. Government to Expand Research Subsidy Program. The Japan News, 18 November. https://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0008003784 [18 November 2021]. From this phenomenon, it can be inferred that, presently and in the future, international collaborative research needs to be considered not only in academia but also in business. Thus, the following question must be asked: What further issues need to be discussed when considering the two avenues for international collaborative research? It is important to recall, as Onyancha (2020:578) mentions, that “institutions or countries do not actively collaborate in research; rather, it is individual researchers who collaborate”. Additionally, as Sooryamoorthy (2013:2) states, “[m]utual respect and recognition, irrespective of skills, knowledge or location, regular communication on project matters without regard for seniority, and more or less equally distributed benefits are contributing conditions in collaboration”. Considering these arguments, it is crucial to remember that the humanities and social sciences are the fields whose cores are themes related to relationships between human beings (and society). Therefore, these fields can be expected to play a vital role in international collaborative research. A second question must be asked: What needs to be specifically discussed in the fields of the humanities and social sciences regarding international collaborative research? In the end, this chapter focuses on presenting tasks related to tensions between the promotion of international collaboration and national competitiveness to identify salient points in the discussion of international collaborative research. Carnoy (1999:21) mentions that “the power of the nation-state is not diminished by globalization because ultimately nation-states still influence the territorial and temporal space in which capital has to invest and where most people acquire their capacity to operate globally”. Thus, it can be inferred that, although society has become globalised, there is still an undercurrent related to “anti-globalisation” views, namely nationalistic ones. A nationalistic statement regarding international collaborative research is evident in the following quote: “From now on, there is a need for an attitude of actively making use of international collaboration as one of the means which aims at maximising the national interest” (Ito 2016:205-206). In fact, there is a programme being offered by the JSPS (on behalf of the MEXT) named “Projects for Promotion of Japanese Studies Based on International Collaboration”, 49 47 Ibid. which aims to promote Japanese studies, the internationalisation of the humanities and social sciences in Japan, and so on, by promoting international collaborative research on “Japanese studies”. 50 48 JSPS website. University-Industry Research Cooperation Societally Applied Scientific Linkage and Collaboration. https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-soc/index.html [20 November 2021]. Furthermore, in the policy of the DHET, although it is stated that “[a]ctivities related to the internationalisation of higher education must be of mutual benefit to both a South African higher education institution and its international partner(s) in agreed collaboration or partnership” (DHET 2019:23), “priority focus” is established as follows: “In the design of internationalisation of higher education activities relating to teaching, learning, research, and community engagement by South African higher education institutions, priority must be given to South Africa’s interests” (DHET 2019:22). Considering the above statements, it can be concluded that there are tensions between the strands of international collaboration and national competitiveness in the field of science. Specifically, it is important to be cautious regarding these tensions when discussing the promotion of international collaborative research. Moreover, when considering relationships between countries, the notions of ‘developing countries’ and ‘developed countries’ should also be considered. On the one hand, as Zhou et al. (2020:1345-1346) state, international collaboration between these countries has a positive impact: The value of international collaboration is not just citation impact, is that it can promote academic communication, enhance research capabilities, and expand the academic network of researchers from developing countries. In addition to contributing to their talents, scholars from developing countries can make up for the shortage of human resources faced by research projects of developed countries. On the other hand, there is a negative impact, as Onyancha (2011:109) mentions: “Whereas continental research areas are largely dictated by unique problems which are common to most countries in Africa, subject areas of research in international collaboration are usually determined by the international community which, in most cases, funds the research”. Additionally, in a discussion of the “EDU-Port Japan” project (a project that is a “‘public-private, nationwide’ initiative to proactively introduce Japanese-style education overseas by providing a platform from in which the public and private sectors collaborate in achieving this objective”), 51 49 JSPS website. Kokusai Kyodo ni motozuku Nihon Kenkyu Suishin Jigyou [Projects for Promotion of Japanese Studies based on International Collaboration]. https://www.jsps.go.jp/j-ic/ [20 November 2021]. Hashimoto (2019:467) criticises the fact that, in terms of the international development of education, “it can be said that the ‘dissemination of Japanese-style education’ is still not ethically desirable”. From the statements above, it can be concluded that it is important to be cautious not only about the positive aspects but also the negative ones related to international research collaboration. Indeed, there are several vital points which need to be continuously considered when discussing the prospects of international collaborative research. Therefore, the natural sciences, humanities and social sciences are expected to play crucial roles in such research. Finally, when considering international collaborative research during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important to consider the fact that the means of conducting such research could remain impacted for an indefinite period. In a world with an unpredictable present and future, situations should be considered on “a case by case basis”. 52 50 Ibid. In other words, tackling situations with flexibility, may be one of the keys to promoting international collaborative research—in fact, flexibility may be a necessary component in all forms of scientific research. References Ariail DL. 2016. Globalization of Higher Education in South Africa. Georgia Journal of College Student Affairs, 32(1):30-35. https://doi.org/10.20429/gcpa.2016.010107 Cabinet Office [Japan]. 2021. Kagakugijyutsu, Inobesyon Kihon Keikaku [Science, Technology and Innovation Basic Plan]. https://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/kihonkeikaku/6honbun.pdf [20 November 2021]. Carnoy M. 1999. Globalization and Educational Reform: What Planners Need to Know, Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000120274 [2 April 2024]. Damonse B. 2019. Strengthening South Africa’s Position in the International Research Arena. Impact, 3, March:26-27. https://doi.org/10.21820/23987073.2019.3.26 Department of Higher Education & Training (DHET) [Republic of South Africa]. 2017. Draft Policy Framework for the Internationalisation of Higher Education in South Africa. Pretoria: DHET https://www.dhet.gov.za/Policy%20and%20Development%20Support/Draft%20Policy%20framework%20for%20the%20internalisation%20of%20Higher%20Education%20in%20Suth%20Africa.pdf [2 April 2024]. Department of Higher Education & Training (DHET) [Republic of South Africa]. 2019. Policy Framework for Internationalisation of Higher Education in South Africa. Pretoria: DHET https://www.dhet.gov.za/Policy%20and%20Development%20Support/Policy%20Framework%20for%20Internationalisation%20of%20Higher%20Education%20in%20South%20Africa.pdf [2 April 2024]. Hashimoto N. 2019. Kokusai Kyouiku Kaihatsuron no Shisou Kadai to Hihan Youshiki: Bunka Teikoku syugi to Shinjiyuusyugi no Rironteki Cyoukoku [A Critical and Ethical Theory of International Educational Development: Beyond Cultural Imperialism and Neoliberalism]. Kyouikugaku Kenkyu [The Japanese Journal of Educational Research], 86(4), December:461-472. https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.86.4_461 Igami M, Saka A & Nagaoka S. 2016. Nihon no Kokusai Kyodou Kenkyu no Genjyou: Ronbun Bunseki to Ronbun Cyosya heno Shitusmonhyou Cyousa karano Shisa [Situation of International Collaborations in Japan, Evidence from Bibliometric Analyses and Surveys to Authors of Scientific Papers]. Kenkyu Gijyutsu Keikaku [The Journal of Science Policy and Research Management], 31(2):145-218. https://doi.org/10.20801/jsrpim.31.2_145 Ito S. 2016. Wagakuni no Kagaku Gijyutsu Kokusai Kyoudou Kenkyu no Gaikan [Overview of the International Collaboration of Science and Technology in Japan]. Kenkyu Gijyutsu Keikaku [The Journal of Science Policy and Research Management], 31(2):202-218. https://doi.org/10.20801/jsrpim.31.2_202 Madonda N. 2015. 10th Anniversary of Science & Technology Cooperation between South Africa and Japan. The Global Eye International Relations and Cooperation Newsletter Edition One 2015: Research and Development. Pretoria: National Research Foundation [Republic of South Africa]. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/documents/The%20Global%20Eye_Edition%201_Single%20Pages_0.pdf [20 November 2021]. Masaki T. 2020. Kokusai Kyodou Kenkyu: Sono Mokuteki, Houhou, Igi [International Collaborative Research: Its Purpose, Methods, Significances]. Africa Kenkyu [Journal of African Studies], 97:31-32. https://doi.org/10.11619/africa.2020.97_31 Murakami Y. 2016. Kokusai Kyodou Kenkyu ni kansuru Kenkyu no Seika to Nihon no Seisaku heno Shisa [A Review of Studies on International Collaborative Research and their Implications for Japanese Policy]. Kenkyu Gijyutsu Keikaku [The Journal of Science Policy and Research Management], 31(2):130-144. https://doi.org/10.20801/jsrpim.31.2_130 National Planning Commission (NPC) [Republic of South Africa]. 2012. National Development Plan 2030: Our Future – Make it Work. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/ndp-2030-our-future-make-it-workr.pdf [20 November 2021]. National Research Foundation (NRF) [Republic of South Africa]. 2016. National Research Foundation Strategy 2020. https://www.nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/documents/NRF%20Strategy%20Implementation.pdf [20 November 2021]. Oki S. 2021. Kagaku Gijyutsu Kihonhou Kaisei to Kokusaiteki na Inobesyon Seisaku no Doukou [Trends of the Amendment of the Basic Act on Science and Technology and the Policy for International Innovation: Comprehensive Comments]. Gakujyutsu no Doukou [Trends in the Sciences], 26(5), May:42-47. https://doi.org/10.5363/tits.26.5_42 Onyancha OB. 2011. Research Collaborations between South Africa and Other Countries, 1986-2005: An Informetric Analysis. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science, 21(2):87-97. Onyancha OB. 2020. Regional and International Research Collaboration and Citation Impact in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries in the Period 2000 to 2019. Global Knowledge Memory and Communication, 70(6/7), September:577-594. https://doi.org/10.1108/GKMC-04-2020-0039 Saruwatari T, Sasaki H & Sato H. 2016. Kokusai Kyodou Kenkyu niokeru Risuku Manejimento [Risk Management on International Research Collaboration]. Kenkyu Gijyutsu Keikaku [The Journal of Science Policy and Research Management], 31(2):191-201. https://doi.org/10.20801/jsrpim.31.2_191 Sooryamoorthy R. 2013. Scientific Collaboration in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 109(5/6), May/June:1-5. http://doi.org/10.1590/sajs.2013/a0016 Tsunogae H. 2018. Koutou Kyoiku [Tertiary Education]. In: T Yoshida (supervisor), H Iida & T Okamoto (eds). MINERVA Hajimete Manabu Kyosyoku 6 Kyouiku Syakaigaku [MINERVA Introduction to a Teaching Profession 6 Sociology of Education] Kyoto: Minerva Syobo, 41-53. Zhou P, Cai X & Lyu X. 2020. An Indepth Analysis of Government Funding and International Collaboration in Scientific Research. Scientometrics, 125, July:1331-1347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03595-2 Chapter 10 An International Collaborative Research Experience between Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia and Hiroshima University, Japan Kyoko Taniguchi

Associate Professor Hiroshima University Japan 10. 1 Introduction The book begins with the first four chapters providing an overview of the higher education systems and societal contexts of Japan and South Africa, aiming to pinpoint potential areas for collaboration between universities from both countries. Chapter 5 examines a partnership program between Japan and Zambia, serving as an illustrative example for South Africa. In Chapter 6, a case study explores Japanese universities’ engagements in Africa, offering valuable insights for potential partnerships between South African and Japanese institutions. Chapter 7 complements Chapter 6 by presenting the firsthand experience of a Malawian student involved in the collaborative initiative discussed therein. Chapter 8 introduces yet another case study, this time focusing on webinars for professional development for teacher educators, linking the University of Malawi and the University of Zambia with universities in Southeast Asian countries. Chapter 9 broadens the scope, discussing the potential of a platform for international collaborative research, with a focus on Japan and South Africa. This chapter also includes a case study on research collaboration between Hiroshima University in Japan and Addis Ababa University in Ethiopia. Collaboration among researchers spans different localities and even different countries. We believe that collaboration in research is important and, therefore, should be encouraged (Katz & Martin 1997). Collaboration contributes to high-quality research as ideas are shared, feedback is received from others and new skills are learned (Kraut, Galegher & Egido 1987). Also, collaboration contributes to research progress in desirable ways, such as sharing ideas and obtaining unique data. It is important to note that there are different levels of research collaboration (e.g., individual, university, industry and government). Moreover, while research collaboration has been conducted domestically or internationally over the years, international collaboration in research is unique. This chapter describes the case of international research collaboration between a researcher at Hiroshima University, Japan, and researchers at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, at the individual level. First, the reasons why collaboration on research is necessary are summarised. Second, the type of research collaboration is described. Finally, the advantages of collaboration in research are discussed. 10.2. Why Do We Need to Collaborate in Research? 10.2.1 Previous Studies Researchers collaborate for a variety of reasons. Kraut et al. (1987) developed a model for research collaboration through interviews with 50 researchers. The model considered three stages in progress (i.e., initiation, execution and public presentation) and two levels (i.e., relationship and task). In the initiation stage, researchers establish relationships and share their interests. In the execution stage, researchers carry out research tasks. In the public presentation stage, researchers summarise their research in a document. It generally takes approximately two years from the initiation stage to the public presentation stage. Some additional reasons for research collaboration include:

1. sharing resources such as research grants and knowledge skills;

2. improving the quality of the research product through sharing ideas and receiving feedback and

3. learning new skills.

Utilising a questionnaire, Melin (2000) found that the major reasons for research collaboration include: sharing special competence, sharing unique data or equipment and developing and testing new methods. He also found the main benefits of collaboration to be increased knowledge, higher scientific quality, contacts or connections for future work and generating new ideas. Maglaughlin and Sonnenwald (2005) identified 20 factors and categorised them into four factors: personal, resources, motivation and common ground. Personal factors are related to individual interests, skills, and feelings. Resource factors include support regarding funding, literature and time. Motivation factors are related to learning and teaching, novel discoveries and fun. Common-ground factors include cognitive factors, political common ground, physical nearness and disciplinary biases. Some researchers have promoted an understanding of research collaboration by reviewing previous studies. Bukvova (2010) listed the potential of research collaboration: access to expertise, access to resources, exchange of ideas (especially across disciplines), pooling expertise for complex problems, keeping one’s own activities focused, learning new skills, higher productivity, higher quality of results, access to funding, prestige, political and personal factors, funding and pleasure. Moreover, Bukova categorised research collaboration factors into two aspects: internal and external. Internal influence factors include issues of quality, issues of credit, coordination, preparation, communication, awareness, dealing with differences, the familiarity of team members, leadership, personal characteristics, boundary setting and legitimate authorisation. External influence factors include academic culture, funding, group size, resources, institutional support, level of institutionalisation, the existence of research centres and national versus international collaborations. Chen, Zhang and Fu (2019) identified three periods in international research collaboration: emergence (1957-1991), fermentation (1992-2005) and take-off (2006-2015). As the period advanced from emergence to take-off, publications increased and the research trajectory went from simple to complicated. Further, they found that political, economic, cognitive and spatial factors drove collaboration. Research collaboration between developed and developing countries entails special benefits. Minasny, Fiantis, Mulyanto, Sulaeman and Widyatmanti (2020) revealed that we could develop new knowledge and promote capacity building. In this chapter, I aim to summarise the reasons for collaboration in research. 10.2.2 This Study I collaborated with others in conducting my research. First, relationships with government offices were an issue. Without any connection to the staff, it was difficult to smoothly secure research permission. Second, there was a language barrier issue. In Ethiopia, there are many local languages. Without knowing these languages, it became impossible to conduct research. Third, there was an access issue, as we needed to visit numerous places for research, such as government offices, institutions and schools. Travel became time-consuming. Fourth, there was a time issue. The time I would stay in Ethiopia was limited. Therefore, to use my time efficiently, research collaboration was necessary. Lastly, there was a cost issue of cost. The budget for research was limited, and by collaborating with other researchers in Ethiopia, the research quality of the data was greatly improved. 10.3. What Kinds of Research Collaboration Have Been Done Previously? 10.3.1 Preparation for Research Before Visiting Ethiopia Due to the time limitations of my stay in Ethiopia, I prepared some necessary elements in advance in Japan. First, I contacted the researchers in Ethiopia asking for their support (see Figure 10.1). I also attached a research proposal to explain the purpose of the research (see Figure 10.2) and a research letter to obtain permission from the Ministry of Education (see Figure 10.3). Next, I explained the purpose of the research, which was to determine school effectiveness in primary schools in Ethiopia. The following research questions were asked:

1. To what extent do students have basic skills?

2. What are the strengths and weaknesses in obtaining basic skills?

3. Which student-level factors influence basic skills?

4. Which school-level factors influence basic skills?

Following this, I received mail from the Ethiopian researchers. They agreed to support me as follows:

• We will visit and consult the City Government of Addis Ababa Education Bureau about selecting the three schools (study sites).

• We will look for experts (subject specialists) to translate the test items and a professional to translate the questionnaire. Could you please let us know the amount of money you plan to pay for the translation?

• We (IER/AAU) will prepare a support letter to the schools and the sub-city Education Department.

• We will accompany you to the study sites during your data collection.

Figure 10.1: The first letter to the Ethiopian researchers

Figure 10.2: Research proposal

Figure 10.3: Letter to the Ministry of Education requesting permission to conduct a survey Second, I explained the research methodology, including the research tools and the criteria for selecting the schools. My research plan was to administer an achievement test and questionnaire to the students and to provide questionnaires to the head teachers and teachers across three primary schools in Addis Ababa. I explained the selection of three primary schools, as I planned to select high-, middle- and low-achieving schools. Furthermore, I inquired as to which schools would be suitable. Third, I asked for the research tools, achievement tests and questionnaires to be translated from English to Amharic (the local language in Ethiopia) as students up to grade 6 use Amharic as the medium of instruction in schools. After we agreed on the translation fees, the Ethiopian researchers started translating them. Finally, I informed the Ethiopian researchers of the possible visit dates to Ethiopia and arranged a research schedule. I sent a letter to set up a meeting upon my arrival and sought support from professors at Addis Ababa University to finalise the schedule (see Figure 10.4). After confirming their phone number, I assured them I would call when I arrived in Ethiopia.

Figure 10.4: Research schedule plan Since the duration of my stay in Ethiopia was limited, it was necessary to prepare the research plan before arriving in Ethiopia. 10.3.2 Research in Ethiopia As described above, I sent a letter when I reached Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Since it was Sunday when I arrived, I purchased a SIM card for my cell phone the following day. During this time, I visited the researchers at Addis Ababa University and discussed the research with them. First, we checked the translations of the test and questionnaire, modifying sections were necessary. Second, we discussed the ability to obtain research permission. As agreed upon previously, the researchers showed support for obtaining permission from the Ministry of Education in the afternoon. Third, we discussed the selection of schools, which resulted in the selection of three public primary schools in Addis Ababa City. The criteria selection involved one high-achieving school, one middle-achieving school and one low-achieving school. We selected the three schools by checking academic performance and school location in the list of primary schools. Additionally, we selected one school for preliminary research. On the second day, after finishing the data preparation, we visited that school to conduct preliminary research and administered an achievement test and questionnaire to students from grades 3 to 7 to select the appropriate grades for measuring academic achievement utilising the test that I created. After checking their results, we decided to conduct the test strictly in grades 4 and 6. Some parts of the test and questionnaire were modified as a result of the findings. On the third day, we started conducting the main research. I collected data from students in grades 4 and 6, as well as from teachers and headteachers in the selected three primary schools. Although the research days were limited, we were able to collect data from three schools in the span of a week. 10.3.3 Research After Returning From Ethiopia After my return from Ethiopia, I checked the data before sending it to a company which inputs data. After the data were returned from the company, I cleaned them for analysis. Next, I analysed the data by using statistics (i.e., descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, t-test, analysis of variance and multiple linear regression) and then summarised the findings in a report. Finally, I shared the findings with the Ethiopian researchers. The results were also presented at conferences and reported in journal articles. 10.4. Advantages of Collaboration in Research The advantages of the research collaboration are summarised in Figure 10.5. However, my relationships with government offices, proficiency in local languages and access to facilities, time and funds were limited. Nonetheless, these issues could be solved by collaborating with Ethiopian researchers. Additionally, research collaboration increased productivity and maintained a high degree of research quality. 10.4.1 Relationship Because the Ethiopian researchers work at Addis Ababa University, they have a good relationship with the Ministry of Education as well as several schools. I could obtain research permission easily because they introduced our research. Without asking for their support, it might have taken a long time to obtain research permission. Also, there was the possibility that the schools would not consider my visit vital. 10.4.2 Language Language is a fundamental issue. Unfortunately, I do not have enough experience speaking the local languages in Ethiopia. If I did not obtain support from the Ethiopian researchers, I would have had greater difficulty conducting this research, such as obtaining the necessary information and researching places where I needed to visit. 10.4.3 Access I am not as familiar with many places in Addis Ababa because I have visited there fewer than five times. Thus, it often takes time to remember many places in general. 10.4.4 Time I only had one week in Ethiopia to conduct this research. Therefore, time was extremely limited. If I had not received this degree of support from the Ethiopian researchers, I would have had to spend much time researching places that I needed to visit. In the end, I would not have been able to finish the research within a week’s stay in Ethiopia. 10.4.5 Cost As conducting research often comes with a budget, it was necessary to collaborate with Ethiopian researchers to use the limited budget efficiently. The advantages of research can be summarised as follows: obtaining unique data, sharing ideas, learning new skills, receiving feedback and deepening relationships. First, I was able to obtain unique data. In this research, I was able to obtain data from high-achieving, middle-achieving and low-achieving schools. However, I did not have information on the achievement levels of the schools beforehand, as the Ethiopian researchers received this information from the Ministry of Education. Second, I shared ideas such as the purpose of the research to measure basic student achievement by asking students to answer some question items. Sharing of ideas can have a positive effect on collaborative research. Third, I learned new skills. For example, I learned how to communicate with teachers and students in Ethiopian primary schools through the Ethiopian researchers. Fourth, I received feedback from the Ethiopian researchers. I shared the findings with them and we discussed how to improve academic achievement in primary schools. Finally, our relationship became more robust than before as we conducted the research together, visited the primary schools, shared the findings and discussed the issues. This process enhanced our relationship. As a result, we were more productive and the quality of the research was higher.

Figure 10.5: Summary of the advantages of international research collaboration 10.5. Conclusion I have described the international research collaboration between Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, and Hiroshima University, Japan, at the individual level. In this research, preparation prior to arrival in Ethiopia was vital due to the limited time in Ethiopia. By collaborating, we formed a relationship with the Ministry of Education and primary schools, overcame language difficulties, accessed many places easily, used the limited time efficiently and managed to minimise the research cost, accruing five advantages:

1. obtaining unique data,

2. sharing ideas,

3. learning new skills,

4. receiving feedback and

5. deepening relationships.

In the end, we had sufficient productivity and obtained high-quality research. This form of international research collaboration is unique. Nonetheless, it is not easy to implement. Therefore, it is necessary to have a good relationship prior to beginning the research. In this case, we needed to share the purpose of the research and gain a common understanding. Collaborating resulted in a number of beneficial outcomes and the relationship with the researchers became more robust than before. References Bukvova H. 2010. Studying Research Collaboration: A Literature Review. Working Papers on Information Systems (All Sprouts Content 326). Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam. Chen K, Zhang Y & Fu X. 2019. International Research Collaboration: An Emerging Domain of Innovation Studies? Research Policy, 48(1):149-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2018.08.005 Katz JS & Martin BR. 1997. What is Research Collaboration? Research Policy, 26(1):1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(96)00917-1 Kraut RE, Galegher J & Egido C. 1987. Relationships and Tasks in Scientific Research Collaboration. Human–Computer Interaction, 3(1):31-58. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327051hci0301_3 Maglaughlin KL & Sonnenwald DH. 2005. Factors that Impact Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Collaboration: Focus on the Natural Sciences in Academia. Paper Presented at the International Society for Scientometrics and Informatics (ISSI) 2005 Conference, July 24-28, Stockholm: Sweden.Mask Melin G. 2000. Pragmatism and Self-Organization Research: Collaboration on the Individual Level. Research Policy, 29:31-40. Minasny B, Fiantis D, Mulyanto B, Sulaeman Y & Widyatmanti W. 2020. Global Soil Science Research Collaboration in the 21st century: Time to End Helicopter Research. Geoderma, 373:114299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114299 Chapter 11 International Collaborative Research: Voices of Global South Researchers Hannah Edjah

University of Cape Coast Lecturer Cape Coast Ghana hannah.edjah@ucc.edu.gh Christopher Kwaah

University of Cape Coast Senior Research Fellow Cape Coast Ghana 11.1 Introduction The preceding chapters of this volume first sketched the societal and higher education contexts of Japanese and South African universities, with the intention of detecting a scope for partnerships, and then offered some case studies of fruitful collaboration between Japanese and South African universities. This penultimate chapter relates the lived experience of Global South researchers (from Ghana) of such partnerships. International collaborative research (ICR) is becoming increasingly important in academia. Researchers worldwide seek to create connections with each other to collectively explore issues of common importance. In the wake of the mass exploration of issues related to the Global South, it is vital that the voices of researchers in this part of the world be heard to avert possible pockets of colonisation in academic research in the name of ICR. This chapter was composed based on the individual experiences of four academic researchers—two women and two men—working at one of the public universities in Ghana. These researchers have engaged in ICR at both individual and institutional levels. With a minimum of 12 years of teaching and research experience, most have been actively engaged in research work after graduating from their master’s programmes in various fields. Their research interests include teacher education, curriculum design and evaluation, ICT, educational technology and human nutrition and dietetics. The least number of publications by these academics is currently six, which is by the academic with the lowest rank (lecturer) among the four. The highest number of publications is slightly over 60 and is by the highest-ranking member of the four, an associate professor who is the dean of a faculty. All academics have had short- or long-term education abroad in Germany, the Netherlands and Finland. In this chapter, we seek to provide insights into how Ghanaian academic researchers establish links and conduct collaborative research with researchers or institutions from the Global North, what drives the ICR process, the factors that hinder the process of ICR and how these challenges are being overcome. Additionally, the elements that keep these four academic researchers interested in ICR and the unique issues that should receive considerable attention in ICR studies have been explored. 11.2 How Does It All Begin? 11.2.1 Striking Acquaintance in ICR Helen Keller once said, “Alone we can do so little, together we can do so much” (Burn 2018). Indeed, great things are achieved when people come together to work for a common goal. ‘Cooperation for the common good’, an inherent concept in social capital theory (Graham 2016; Bhandari & Yasunobu 2009), is gaining popularity in the academic research arena as the world becomes smaller and smaller with the advent of advanced technology for human interaction. Since the 1990s when social capital theory was introduced in academic debates (Bhandari & Yasunobu 2009), researchers have become more open to voluntary associations or partnerships with colleagues across different continents. Funding agencies and research councils are no exception as they have also realised that the collaborative research approach yields more responsive, sustainable and multi-perspective research outcomes and impacts (Fransman, Hall, Hayman, Narayanan, Newman & Tandon 2021; Fransman, Newman, & Bharadwaj 2019). Together, researchers seek to explore concepts, theories and philosophical assumptions in different contexts to advance knowledge and society in general. These associations or network relationships are formed as academics engage with each other on issues of common interest, build trust and share and exchange resources for the good of all members involved (Ball & Juneman 2012). As indicated by Ball and Juneman (2012), there are various opportunities for networking relationships. Conferences, workshops, seminars and network platforms are popular media for direct networking with potential Global North researchers (GNRs). The ICR experiences of the four researchers in Ghana have in the past involved researchers from advanced countries such as China, England, Finland, Japan and the United States, thus presenting a heterogeneous group of researchers. The research collaboration usually begins with a GNR initiating the link directly with colleagues in Ghana who are in the same professional networks as them. Examples include the staff and student-mobility-network project (North-South-South network) of the University of Helsinki, Global TIES for children based at New York University and the Africa-Asia Dialogue of researchers based at Hiroshima University. In some instances, the request for ICR is not communicated directly. It emerges gradually from several interactions concerning co-hosted or jointly organised conferences and international summer schools, which then transform into stable working relationships and subsequently, research collaborations at the individual level. Sometimes, these network relationships are not properly formed and, hence, may fail with time (Ball & Juneman 2012). The referral system, popularly known in Ghana as ‘who you know’ and recently rephrased as ‘who knows you’, is a very effective means of linking up with fellow researchers in similar interest areas. In this context, it is implied that researchers are linked up with potential research collaborators through colleagues with whom they are already acquainted and who may trust their abilities or professional output. The institutional level ICR of the four academics has been done through such means. Specifically, they have been referred through old classmates, work colleagues, supervisors and mentors. These known links have established networks that have yielded collaborations with researchers from Asia, America, Europe and Australia. Publications make researchers visible globally, especially when the publications are available on online professional platforms, either in part or in full. Online professional platforms such as Google Scholar, Research Gate and Academia.edu present avenues for prospective GNRs to seek and link up with Global South researchers (GSRs) based on the expertise that GSRs exhibit through their publications (Lepori, Thelwall & Hoorani 2018; Manca 2018). All four GSRs whose accounts were used in this chapter are members of some of these professional platforms and have had GNRs link up with them out of interest in their online publications, which include journal publications, policy briefs, reports and book chapters. The accounts of the four GSRs on the forms of communication during ICR suggest that before 2020, discussions of possible research collaborations were held through face-to-face meetings during the design or planning of conferences, seminars, workshops, network projects or at the point of data analysis of ongoing research or staff exchange. Either way, the volume of e-mail exchanges usually preceded or followed face-to-face meetings. Voice calls were used to supplement these methods when prompt clarifications were needed. To date (December 2021), e-mails still play a major role in ICR activities. As a result of COVID-19 and its restrictions on movement (Almahasees, Mohsen, & Amin 2021), WhatsApp, Microsoft Teams and Zoom have become popular means of enhancing communication between GNRs and the four academics from the Global South. ICR relationships usually develop based on the processes that researchers use to express, agree on and realise common goals. The higher the shared sense of importance of the research and level of commitment, the higher the chance of sustaining the group once the network is formed. It is common knowledge among the four GSRs that the African continent is a fertile ground for research. Hence, involvement in ICR that aligns with one’s interests could broaden one’s network. This knowledge induces a high level of commitment and a sense of need to make constructive input in the ICR groups that they join, as new links could be formed if one’s contribution to the previous ICR is appreciated. Most of the collaborations engaged in by the four GSRs have been initiated by GNRs or institutions and are funded by funding agencies based in the Global North. The form of contribution or input required of the four GSRs is usually communicated to them at the very beginning and may be modified depending on how the research evolves. 11.2.2 Defining the Role of the GSR Although there are many issues to investigate, it is only logical that the research projects in which the four GSRs have been involved are tied to their areas of specialisation and research interests. Consequently, the research themes have centred on teaching approaches, educational technology, curriculum design and development, education and gender, inclusivity in education, and human nutrition and dietetics. In terms of who leads a research project, it is understood that in research, the principal investigator (PI) leads the team. Next in the line of authority is the researcher with the longest working relationship with the PI, who may not necessarily have the most experience in international collaboration, for example, but understandably so, the most known and trusted by the PI. Usually, the PI comes from the institution or country that is funding the project. The GSRs whose accounts were used in this chapter have close to no experience in leading ICR, especially those involving GNRs. The experience thus far has to do with ICRs among African institutions. Two of the four GSRs have obtained funds from local institutions to conduct research in the country. However, they have not engaged GNRs in that research because they are of the opinion that the issues under investigation are specific to the local context, and thus, GNRs may not be interested. Additionally, the funds are not adequate and may not be appreciated by GNRs who have access to larger sums of funds. A few attempts by one of the four GSRs to obtain appreciable amounts of research grants for research that had a global outlook failed. One of the four is of the opinion that access to foreign research grants is political, as it appears to him that aside from meeting the selection criteria, funding institutions usually prefer to fund research works that have PIs from their institution or country. Two experiences or views are recounted below: the first GSR sheds light on why he finds it difficult to secure funds to lead ICRs, and the second sheds light on the nature of his role and its challenges: For research projects that come with funds, my perception on that is … what is the word? Hypocritical. Yes, I want to say very hypocritical because it appears some years back, donors or funders had something in mind, sometimes even who to give a project to, sometimes it appears they had that also in mind already; so it becomes very difficult. It becomes very difficult unless you are in very good standing with them or you are in their circles. So, if the people you’re in competition with in bidding for the funds are strong in terms of being within the circles of the funders, it becomes very difficult for the GSR to get the funds. So, sometimes, I think that you need some gurus, some names, people with known identity and are ready to collaborate with you in order to get some of these funds, and in so doing, they have to be the PI; but without that, it’s becoming very difficult; it is increasingly difficult for these collaboration funds to come. Sometimes I feel that, of course, the company or the industry that is providing the intervention, you know, seems to align more with him, the PI, and sometimes I just draw back when we do not seem to agree on an approach. I just draw back until he (PI) hits the wall, then I come in. I think these things happen because of their mindsets. So, yes, they are seeing an African professor and, in spite of what they have seen and read about you, they still have their reservations, which happens quite often with me. Normally, it’s difficult to handle some of these issues, and I think sometimes it is also a big barrier because if you are not careful, you may not be able to work freely. The common thread running through these two accounts is that, given the opportunity and conducive or supportive environments, GSRs could contribute more to ICR. Their comprehensive accounts suggest that when they join an ICR team, they often employ similar strategies of engagement in their bid to carve a niche for themselves in the international world of research. This means playing the underdog until adequate experience is gained, trust is built and identity is formed in each ICR team. This typically involves welcoming nearly all roles assigned to them and carrying them out while figuring out which roles bring out the best in them, allowing them to stay authentic to the research community. These accounts suggest that the requests or roles assigned to the four GSRs are often those that they can execute. In a few instances where they felt slightly incapable of some of the tasks assigned, they either found colleagues to help or gave subtle hints to the team to help. One such instance, which is commendable, was that of a team working on an experimental study. Upon receiving a series of cry outs about the challenge with laboratory analysis by the GSR, they decided to organise a workshop in Ghana where they all came together to conduct the analysis. Such instances where team members rally behind each other to upgrade their competence to get the job done are motivating. This illustrates how networks share resources or work as a cohesive unit to achieve set goals (Graham 2016; Jones & Harris 2014). Further, it was opined that such approaches tend to make the four GSRs feel valued beyond the research, which produces a good level of commitment and encourages freedom of expression on their part in the ICR team. Contrary to this experience, a case is recalled where the PI’s response to one such request was not encouraging, although there was a considerable amount of email correspondence during the project. An account of one of the four GSRs suggests that she had experienced an instance where the clarity of the nature of research left her working in a maze. The email from the GNR stated exactly how much the funding agency would pay and the period to get the work done. To help the GSR in question be more effective and efficient with the work she was doing, perhaps a couple of virtual meetings or voice calls—instead of emails—to discuss in detail the specifics of the research would have served the GSR better. The bottom line is that clear, detailed and consistent communication during collaborative research influences the four GSRs’ level of commitment and desire for continuity. This may not always be positive, as frequent communication may also be perceived as a disruption, since several factors are competing for researchers’ time. It is advisable for ICR teams to decide on communication or meeting patterns collectively at the formative stage of collaboration and use them as part of the protocols that govern their interaction. So far, the main role of the four GSRs has been to collaboratively contribute to the research work after the research focus has been established. They help shape the idea using their backgrounds as GSRs to provide their individual country contexts for better interpretation and understanding. The four GSRs enjoy such collaboration compared to the ones where they play the role of validating the instrument, collecting data and passing them on or going further to analyse them alone before passing them on. The latter feels as if a GSR is paid just to do a job. One misses an opportunity to learn from others in the team. The four GSRs are of the view that they would better appreciate the collaboration if they were invited to contribute to the research from its inception, regardless of whether it is funded or not, as the sense of collaboration is better felt in such instances. One researcher who has played the sole role of data collector and processor in an ICR project in his early career years recounted his experience, which is unique to early career researchers and should be viewed in that context: There was one instance where I was given a questionnaire by a collaborator to determine whether it fits our context, even though I was not part of the initial research conceptualisation. I was to collect, clean, and send it to the GNR to analyse the data and subsequently write the report without any input from me. However, I enjoyed this collaboration because I was going to be rewarded financially, and from this one, there would emerge another collaboration. That was when I was a research assistant, not a lecturer. Inherent in the accounts of the four GSRs’ role in ICR is the idea that the power of the financing institution or agency often strongly determines or ultimately influences the structure and nature of the relationships that develop. These relationships are often strongly hierarchical, placing the PI, who has secured the research funds, in a position of power to drive the entire research team. In other words, funders’ requirements are one of the forces that drive the ICR process. What might the other factors be and how do these drivers influence the ICR process? 11.3 What Drives the ICR Process? From the accounts of the GSRs, the drivers of the ICR process include the research objectives, funders’ requirements and the individual experiences, contexts and geographical locations of the members of the ICR team. 11.3.1 Research Objectives and Funders’ Requirements The four GSRs share the view that the study objectives, coupled with the funder’s requirements, in cases where the research is funded, are the most influential drivers of the ICR process. Every researcher sets out to achieve certain objectives through their research. These objectives determine, among others, the research site, population of interest and nature of the analysis. These, in turn, determine the kind of expertise the PI needs to bring to the research team, the medium the team members operate through, the frequency of meetings, how resources will be shared and utilised and the timelines for conducting the study. In bidding for research grants, agencies and institutions consider proposals when choosing which research to sponsor. If the research objectives indicated in the proposal align with the funding agencies or institutions’ mission, vision or social/corporate responsibility plans and they award the PI or research team the funds to conduct the study, the selection criteria have already been met by the winning team. Upon winning the grant, the funder’s other conditions or requirements must be met. These selection criteria and requirements for accessing grants may include persons or institutions that may apply, gender balance and cultural diversity of the research team, scheduled reports and accountability for funds used to achieve the research objectives. Together, these criteria set the stage for processes such as defining the roles, the kind of power structure that will guide the team, the communication patterns that will be employed and the kind of changes that will be effected in the research budget. Whether the research objectives, together with the funders’ requirements, drive the ICR process in a healthy and sustainable manner largely depends on the individual experiences and contexts of all the ICR team members. 11.3.2 Individual Experiences and Contexts of Team Members The diversity of any research team either overtly or subtly shapes the ICR process. Researchers come on board with perceptions and working experiences from diverse endeavours and settings, which inform how they work as team members to achieve the research and team goals. The PI’s working experience, for example, influences how they run the team’s affairs, that is, whether they fully disclose all relevant information to the team, how they conduct meetings, how records are kept and how data are managed. Sometimes, the PI’s views, inclinations and previous experience may lead to collaborations that are exploitative to the team members. This happens when the PI chiefly directs members of the team to do the work with very little direct input from the PI, yet, at the end of the day, all the reports will project and acknowledge the PI as having done most of the work. Among the research team members, there may also be some form of exploitation where one or more researchers tend to be more committed and experienced. In such circumstances, the committed and experienced members end up doing more work, serving as the quality control for the team. Such team members may also present much work in ways that exaggerate their role concerning authorship and reporting to funding institutions or agencies. The individual experiences of each team member can, therefore, bring about a cycle of exploitation. The experiences of each team member can also bring out the qualities of other members that influence the process of collaboration. Inexperience may lead to the development of mentoring relationships, leadership and communication skills. For example, experienced researchers or collaborators may provide enormous guidance to the PI and the team on how to successfully carry out the collaboration. Inexperienced researchers may learn to lead a team by improving their communication skills, such as not talking over others but rather waiting for their turn and discontinuing the use of interrogative tones when commenting on other people’s work, learning to use a subtle approach, which is more suggestive and supportive. Understanding the circumstances under which each team member is operating is also important, as it influences the member’s contribution to the group and helps team members be sensitive to the needs of each other. A typical scenario is the nature of support systems available to the four GSRs, whose accounts were used to develop this chapter. According to the GSRs, every lecturer in their institutions is entitled to teaching assistants who are fresh bachelor-level graduates serving the country for one year. This support, although greatly appreciated, is problematic and influences the smooth running of affairs for the four GSRs as they engage in ICR. The challenge is that, after months of painstaking training by the four GSRs, the teaching assistants complete their service and leave just when they have had a good grasp of the job. Having the same assistant for longer periods would serve these GSRs better, as the assistants would then be able to use the knowledge and skills they have developed on the job for the benefit of the GSRs. They would be able to take care of the mundane tasks of the GSRs, freeing up their minds and time to engage in ICR. 11.3.3 Geographical Locations of ICR Team Members Working as a team from different parts of the world can be challenging, but technology makes it possible and even easier. The lack of physical proximity requires careful management so that the research and ICR team’s objectives are attained in the best possible way. For example, if team members are in parts of the world where Internet connectivity and electrical power supply are unreliable, the ICR process will be affected negatively. High costs of Internet data will have the same impact. Consequently, regular attendance at team meetings and an uninterrupted flow of interaction during meetings will be a challenge for GSRs in such locations. The four GSRs always make provision for Internet data regardless of the cost, as they view access to the Internet as essential to their day-to-day work. However, they are all too familiar with situations where poor Internet connectivity or power supply interrupts their ICR meetings. This is especially disruptive to the team when the one with the connectivity issue is playing a vital role in the meeting when the interruption occurs. The four GSRs’ solution to the connectivity issues has so far involved subscriptions to multiple telecommunication companies so that they can switch between networks when one fails. This is only possible in places where multiple telecommunication companies are present. In the case of devices running out of battery power, the GSRs simply disconnect from the team meeting until power is restored. Location, therefore, dictates the resources that are available for ICR, and all members, especially PIs, should create an environment that allows for open communication about members’ resource advantages and limitations so that the team can find solutions that will drive the process to the advantage of all. 11.4 What Hinders the ICR Process? How are the Challenges Being Overcome? Every venture has its unique challenges, and engaging in ICR is no exception (Geller, Patel, Niak, Goudar, Edlavitch, Kodkany & Derman 2004). Identifying these challenges is a step in the right direction in finding sustainable solutions. The challenges discussed here are common to at least three of the four GSRs. These include the knowledge gap and limited access to data analysis software, timelines, accountability, power relations in ICR and communication. 11.4.1 Knowledge Gap and Limited Access to Data Analysis Software A researcher’s educational background and exposure play a vital role in their ability to contribute to a research team constructively. Often, the four GSRs try to develop their research ideas around methods or tools that they are confident using. These are usually the methods and tools that they utilised during the master’s or doctoral thesis work and not necessarily those they were taught during these programmes. The four GSRs learn about other analysis tools as they engage in research work after a thesis. Three of the four GSRs were of the view that they needed to gain more knowledge and skills in data analysis, particularly using more efficient and modern software. Considering the level of technological advancement in the Global North, it is very likely that GNRs have had more opportunities to develop a range of knowledge and skills pertaining to data analysis. Unlike GNRs, three of the four GSRs usually join an ICR team with a need to upgrade their skills. It is the four GSRs’ ‘can do’ spirit that makes the difference, but there are times when data analysis is a real hurdle to the successful and timely completion of an ICR study. Although these collaborations become a learning ground for some GSRs, they are not always wholly deemed commendable, as they may set back the study. For example, one team used STATA to analyse quantitative data, and the GSR was not familiar with the software. This meant that the GNR had to perform most of the analysis, while the GSR in question struggled to learn to use that software. Such occurrences can become a hurdle to the GSR and induce dissatisfaction on the part of the GNR, which often demotivates the four GSRs and weakens their desire to lead a funded ICR. Limited access to data analysis software is partly due to limited access to a wide variety of software by several university instructors. The university where the four GSRs work does not have a culture of purchasing and making available software to improve the research capacity of its academics. The cost of doing so is also quite high for individual researchers. Hence, most academics try to conduct their analysis using very simple and easily accessible tools, such as Microsoft Word and Excel. This challenge of not being able to purchase licensed data analysis software such as NVivo, SPSS and STATA limits the opportunity for GSRs to learn how to use the software. This means that GSRs are likely to engage in analysis methods that they are not confident using when they join ICR teams. To bridge the knowledge gap, the four GSRs have been striving to use all research opportunities to learn about unfamiliar analysis tools. Sometimes, they rely on colleagues who have access to software to guide their learning. At other times, they learn through the opportunity created by the ICR when funds are allocated to purchase licences. Improved access to online journals and books is also helping the GSRs to keep abreast with research being conducted internationally. Some universities have subscribed to journal databases that allow staff and students easy access to articles in academic journals, although access to e-books remains a challenge to the GSRs. 11.4.2 Timelines Does the GSR want to hear the clock ticking? Certainly not. They say ‘time and tide wait for no man’, and academics are very conscious of the importance of time and opportunities. Although they are conscious of seizing the opportunity to progress in their careers, this is sometimes daunting for the four GSRs. As much as research is time-bound, especially when it is funded by persons or organisations other than the researchers themselves, researchers do well to work within the stipulated time. However, there are factors that constrain project timelines, including processing delays encountered when seeking ethical clearance in Ghana, the commitment of research participants in making themselves easily accessible to the research team and difficulties in collecting data from people without compensation. These must be reflected in the work plan to make completion as feasible as possible. Other factors, such as the competing social responsibilities that are particular to the Ghanaian culture and the implication of the GSRs’ job prescription (particularly where the researcher’s university runs different streams of programmes such as distance and sandwich modes of education) also present various challenges. The four GSRs’ university has a mainstream programme, which requires that the GSRs carry out responsibilities similar to those of all academic researchers in any university. For example, every lecturer’s duties are clustered into three. First is the teaching responsibility, which entails supervising the projects of bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral degree students or a combination of these depending on their rank and the actual teaching of a minimum number of 12 credit hours per week, which can be broken down into a minimum of four courses worth three credit hours each. Second is the research responsibility and duty to serve the community. The university concerned here has different streams, and three of the four lecturers are with the College of Education Studies responsible for these additional streams. The number of different streams of programmes that exist multiplies their teaching role in the regular programme. This will typically involve setting questions with the scheme, facilitating workshops, coordinating marking sessions and embarking on the supervision of teaching or monitoring of examination sessions. They are likely to carry out a semester’s supervision of students practising how to teach in micro settings on the university campus and, in the subsequent semester, a minimum of two weeks of supervision of the student-teacher field experience in different zones of the various regions in the country. The workload of three of these four academic researchers is therefore unique and sometimes hinders their participation in ICR. Extending work to go beyond the official time is a regular occurrence, but it negatively affects the health of the GSRs and limits their time for family and society. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the average Ghanaian academic who is passionate about their work has not cultivated the habit of pulling the brakes to exercise, relax and just have leisure or recreational time to create a good balance or help them rejuvenate. Furthermore, Ghanaians are generally known to be communal in their way of living, taking an interest in the nurturance and care of relatives outside their nuclear family. The four alluded that any person who is in academia, especially at the university level, is viewed as a beacon of society. Hence, many people bring their social and economic issues to such people. The same is true regarding their engagement in traditional and religious activities in society. Academics are encouraged to share their time, knowledge, energy and other resources with their traditional and religious groups for the public good. Although service to humanity is laudable, it affects one’s ability to engage in rigorous research. These are the main time-related factors that are affecting the four GSRs in meeting ICR deadlines. These limitations tend to induce some fear of tarnishing one’s image should the four GSRs engage in ICR and not be able to meet the deadlines. To address this, the four academics usually sacrifice social time for work, leaving their family and friends feeling neglected. In other words, their solution to this challenge creates another problem of self-isolation. As the four have observed, this affects academics when they retire, as people, including families, tend to also neglect them in their old age. This leaves them ageing faster than they would probably have, had they been able to have a proper work-life balance. The four GSRs are very conscious of this occurrence at their university. Consequently, they are trying to achieve a good work-life balance by cultivating the habit of declining some university-related outreach work and some collaborative research work where necessary and possible, only taking up work they can manage without sacrificing family and friends. Therefore, ICR teams must appreciate the importance of sensitive and effective cross-cultural management. 11.4.3 Communication Challenges Before the pandemic, research collaboration between the four GSRs and GNRs was limited to emails and virtual meetings, such as Skype, WebEx and WhatsApp communications. The four GSRs are of the view that daily email checks and instant responses are not yet a habit of a considerable number of focused and ambitious academic researchers in the Global South. Therefore, it is challenging to have email as the primary means of communication, as emails are either seen, read and responded to too late, or are missed altogether in the pile. Another challenge posed using email as the primary means of collaboration is the limited opportunity offered to the GSR to communicate with the GNR. One researcher shared her experience thus: There has been an instance where I engaged in collaboration without being fully confident of the write-ups I was submitting to the group because I did not fully understand the nature of the research we were doing. I used the same medium, email, to get further clarity, but I am of the view that I would have done a better job if there were at least fortnightly online meetings to discuss the content and progress of the research. All four GSRs agreed that email time attracts more time and energy than it deserves. They pointed out that they were usually mindful of the cultural differences that exist to communicate in a manner that allows their identity to shine through and at the same time maintain high professionalism in the emails. Another researcher recounted her experience as follows: For instance, there was a request for collaboration from a referral made by one of my previous international research collaborators, where my role was supposed to be chiefly data collection. The email itself came late with respect to the deadline for bidding for the grant, and the collaborators wanted a quick nod from me. After thorough scrutiny of their email to ensure that I fully understood their request, I drafted my response carefully, ensuring that my enquiries were perceived as nothing short of seeking further clarification about the research and the proposed timeframes. Interestingly, my email ended the communication on this particular proposed collaboration. I devoted time and energy to constantly checking my inbox, spam, or trash to ensure that I hadn’t missed the e-mail, and nothing ever popped up. This incident makes one wonder whether the non-response was because of the enquiries made or other reasons unknown to the GSR. In either case, a reply to the enquiries would have been in order. This reflects what sometimes happens in ICR, and it must be noted that communication in ICR needs to come from all parties (Bagshaw, Lepp & Zorn 2007; Wagner, Whetsell & Mukherjee 2019). Another challenge for the four GSRs regarding communication in ICR is unreliable Internet connectivity in some parts of Ghana. On the campus, Internet reception is generally good, but it is not always so when working from home or during outreach programmes. This challenge, coupled with the GSRs’ email management habit, inhibits smooth communication within the team. One way to address this communication issue is to help students cultivate email management habits at the secondary education level. Assignments, reports and assessments can be done through email so that learners have several opportunities at different levels of their education to write, read and respond to official emails timeously. Effecting this change will help learners to avoid encountering this challenge when they become employed. In terms of managing emails in an ICR team, it must be noted that varying time zones and work schedules are a major barrier to establishing permanent structures that will always work smoothly for all members. The structures must, therefore, be sufficiently flexible. 11.4.4 Power Relations and Accountability in ICR The issue of power relations is discussed in light of the origin of research ideas and funds in the case of funded research. Whether the team is international or local, to a considerable extent, the voice of the PI steers the research. This is understandably so, as the PI begins with an idea or aim that they sell to their team to work on. Sometimes, when a researcher communicates a research idea or topic to the team, the team works together to conceptualise the entire research. Hence, power is shared among all researchers, whether it is funded or not, because all members participate right from the beginning. At other times, when the proposal has already been written by the PI, who has a clear idea of the objectives and methods that they want to use to achieve the objectives, the objectives and methods may or may not be modified by the team. Where there is no opportunity for team members to make suggestions for consideration and possible modification of the research, the PI, rather than the rest of the team, holds much of the power. Where the research is funded, the requirements or conditions of the funding agency ascribe power to the funding agency. ICR, therefore, has the potential to marginalise the position of GSRs in relation to the entire team and could potentially introduce limited opportunities for GSRs to protect their interests (Tikly 2019). Two of the four GSRs identify a couple of relations that are exploitative and mimic colonisation in the research arena. When it comes to collaboration that has got to do with looking for people from our side to engage in research in our context and there’s some money somewhere which is coming from the West, then, to a large extent, one has to adapt their thoughts to suit what they are looking for, regardless of the extent to which you wish to deviate or bring out issues in a certain direction. (Male researcher) The PI is very strict on results; she keeps hammering on how result-oriented she is, and thus, the need for everyone to produce results. The research is ongoing, and there is weekly accountability in its true sense, with the PI reiterating the need for results at every meeting. It is unfortunate. (Female researcher) The kind of ICR that spells out the role of the GSR in a way that suggests that the GSR is in the employ of their collaborators is a challenge. It communicates a power structure that places the GSR in a subservient role. When collaborations take this form, the researchers’ sense of ownership becomes weak. Usually, the researcher feels a strong sense of ownership about the specific role they played and not the entire research. In the experience of the four GSRs, the power structure within a team is not always overt from the onset of the collaboration. Therefore, they usually manage those situations by separating power relations from the actual work to get the work done. This, however, becomes a lesson to the GSR, who may decide against subsequent collaborations with that particular team because of the tendency of the relation to turn into one that works in favour of modern-day colonisation through ICR. 11.5 Why Continue to Engage in ICR? ICR has contributed to the development of GSRs’ careers in several ways that have benefitted fellow academics, students, institutions and the nation at large. Increasingly, the world is feeling like one community when it comes to scientific knowledge production. Therefore, the time is ripe for researchers to engage with each other regardless of their geographical contexts. This section sheds light on the benefits that the four GSRs derive from ICR, especially for the GSRs who find themselves in limited-resourced environments. 11.5.1 Engage to Publish and Flourish As stated earlier in this chapter, one of the main duties of an academic in a university is to conduct research and share findings through publications and conferences. The accomplishment of this duty is enhanced by one’s engagement in ICR. This is because of the collective effort by all to successfully complete the research. ICR helps GSRs to publish in reputable journals, thus increasing their visibility globally, as recounted by one of the GSRs: I think that ICR pushes us high. At the end of the day, it pushes us to know our content very well. Most of these projects are very demanding, but the output is often published in very good journals. Publications in these journals demand that the output be rich, and I think this is an advantage. So, it pushes you beyond your capability, and at the end of the day, it increases your visibility. (Male researcher) 11.5.2 Engage to Network and Acquire Knowledge ICR provides a platform for researchers from different parts of the world to work together as a team (Geller et al. 2004). Depending on how each research collaboration transpires, one may form lifelong networks that will enrich one’s academic career. This kind of networking is attractive to the GSR, as the system of ‘who knows you’ is one that drives many subsequent engagements. Researchers come on board with unique sets of experiences that can help shape their fellow researchers’ knowledge and skills. The diverse backgrounds of team members present something new to learn during collaboration. The use of new software by the ICR team is an attractive element that motivates the four GSRs to continue engaging in ICR as it grants them learning opportunities that may not be available to their colleagues who do not engage in ICR. The opportunity to learn through the networks that ICR presents is thus highly valued by these GSRs. One GSR summarises this as follows: It has helped me improve my analytical and critical skills, as well as my oral and written skills. My quantitative and qualitative data analysis skills have also improved since I have played the role of field and data manager in many of the research projects. (Male researcher) 11.5.3 Engage to Establish a Healthy Mentorship The approach or working relationship created between researchers is a key element that drives the four GSRs’ future engagement in ICR. Like any human relationship, healthy relationships have a higher chance of succeeding than unhealthy ones. It is the opinion of the four GSRs that researchers in the Global South who are relatively new to ICR usually appreciate the mentor-mentee kind of collaboration that has the potential to help them become internationally recognised. One of the four GSRs sheds light on this: My impression of the first research collaboration request was nothing short of positive. I became acquainted with a GSR in the same field of study, with similar research interests. She had a great personality; she was well advanced in her career, very passionate about education in her field, professional in her dealings with me, and very encouraging of my work. These attributes made it easy for me to envisage fruitful and sustainable collaboration with her. Additionally, the relationship also felt like a mentor-mentee relationship, so, the first couple of works we conducted together were mostly steered by her. The GNR has to understand that the GSR who gets involved in a research collaboration that feels like a mentor-mentee relationship expects guidance and growth that will spear them on to be able to lead research projects they conceive. I am happy to point out that we are heading in that exact trajectory. Currently, we have conceived a research project borne out of an idea I shared with her, and we have also secured funds from her country to support the project. Who would want to back out from such a healthy collaboration? (Female researcher) The mentor-mentee relationship in ICR is usually, in the experience of the four GSRs, applicable and highly valued in situations where the GSR is an early career researcher and the GNR is an experienced researcher. The four GSRs were unable to point to experiences or known cases where early-career GNRs sought to establish that kind of relationship with experienced GSRs. In other words, the dynamics are not the same when the roles are reversed. 11.6 What Should ICR Teams Include in Their Studies? Researchers are generally involved in research that investigates or explores topics that are of interest to them; thus, it is not realistic to push forward one’s research ideas in collaborative research that is initiated by someone else. It is when there is continuity after the initial collaboration that opportunities are offered naturally to members of the team to share their research ideas, and the team will proceed if it buys into those ideas. The four GSRs are mostly limited in researching issues affecting their specific contexts or in advancing developments in their fields of specialisation mainly due to the cost of conducting robust research. Generally, the four GSRs indicated that they have limited access to funds to conduct robust research projects. Their efforts to secure external funds often do not yield favourable responses. They believe that this is partly due to the issues that they seek to investigate. The four are of the view that most local issues that are important to them may not be perceived as important to GNRs or fund providers. Hence, teaming up with international researchers from the Global North to seek funds for research becomes difficult. The funders’ view of pertinent issues worthy of support may therefore result in the four GSRs having their research proposals and applications for grants shelved often. Some contextual issues that are viewed as having the potential to improve the lives of people in the Global South include polygamy and traditional family systems. Unfortunately, these are not on the global radar for discussion by influential bodies such as the United Nations, OECD, World Bank and UNICEF as often as the four GSRs believe they should. For example, research in Africa has shown that polygamy can help reduce poverty and distribute wealth in African society more evenly than monogamy, which has been accepted in most African societies (Ahinkorah 2021; Bisong & Orji 2020) because of the social dimension of globalisation. Another contextual issue that the four GSRs agree would benefit people in the Global South is the scientific investigation of using local foods herbs, and spices to manage health problems, such as diabetes, hypertension, post-pregnancy nutrition and COVID-19. The laboratory equipment needed to conduct some of these experimental studies is expensive and difficult for individual researchers to acquire and use. The cost of conducting robust research work, especially experimental research, is therefore a major determinant of the extent to which the sociocultural perspectives of researchers in the Global South will be heard globally. 11.7 Conclusion Diversity makes research collaboration complex, but it also provides valuable experiences. It is essential to hear the voices of GSRs to inform subsequent research collaborations and reshape existing ones. Prospective collaborations should find creative means of managing the challenges discussed in this chapter and new ones that may arise in specific contexts. Given the challenge of limited funds, GSRs should team up within or across institutions to purchase licences and the equipment needed to carry out research. The GNR should not view the Global South as a mere fertile ground for research but as an avenue to help in the capacity building of academic researchers in the Global South. Likewise, GSRs with similar experiences should reposition themselves to rigorously explore or create local funding and invite GNRs for collaborative work. Therefore, there is a need for collective efforts to find creative means to manage the challenges that come with ICR, as effective ICR can help to positively advance the processes of decolonisation, such as exposing and challenging power relations and becoming more inclusive of a wider range of stakeholder voices. References Ahinkorah BO. 2021. Polygyny and Intimate Partner Violence in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from 16 Cross-Sectional Demographic and Health Surveys. SSM – Population Health, 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100729 Almahasees Z, Mohsen K & Amin MO. 2021. Faculty’s and Students’ Perceptions of Online Learning During COVID-19. Frontiers in Education, 6, (May):1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.638470 Bagshaw D, Lepp M & Zorn CR. 2007. International Research Collaboration: Building Teams and Managing Conflicts. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 24(4):185-202. https://doi.org/10.1002/crq.183 Ball SJ & Junemann C. 2012. Networks, New Governance and Education. Bristol: Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.46692/9781847429810 Bhandari H & Yasunobu K. 2009. What is Social Capital? A Comprehensive Review of the Concept. Asian Journal of Social Science, 37(3):480-510. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853109X436847 Bisong PB & Orji MO. 2020. A Critical Reflection on the Christian Teaching on Polygamy in Relation to Its Effect on the African Society. Journal of Socialization: Journal of Thought, Research and Scientific Development of Sociology of Education, 7(2):66. https://doi.org/10.26858/socialization.v0i2.15854 Burn K. 2018. “Alone We Can Do So Little; Together We Can Do So Mmuch”: Collaborative Library Projects at the University of Divinity. Atla Summary of Proceedings, 37-49. https://doi.org/10.31046/proceedings.2018.115 Fransman J, Hall B, Hayman R, Narayanan P, Newman K & Tandon R. 2021. Beyond Partnerships: Embracing Complexity to Understand and Improve Research Collaboration for Global Development. Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 42(3):1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2021.1872507 Fransman J, Newman K & Bharadwaj S. 2019. Rethinking Research Impact Through Principles for Fair and Equitable Partnerships. IDS Bulletin, 50(1):21-42. https://doi.org/10.19088/1968-2019.104 Geller SE, Patel A, Niak VA, Goudar SS, Edlavitch SA, Kodkany BS & Derman RJ. 2004. Conducting International Collaborative Research in Developing Nations. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 87(3):267-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.08.019 Graham LK. 2016. Beyond Social Capital: The Role of Leadership, Trust and Government Policy in Northern Ireland’s Victim Support Groups. London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137518675 Jones M & Harris A. 2014. Principals Leading Successful Organisational Change: Building Social Capital Through Disciplined Professional Collaboration. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 27(3):473-485. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-07-2013-0116 Lepori B, Thelwall M & Hoorani BH. 2018. Which US and European Higher Education Institutions are Visible in ResearchGate and What Affects Their RG Score? Journal of Informetrics, 12(3):806-818. Manca S. 2018. ResearchGate and Academia.edu as Networked Socio-Technical Systems for Scholarly Communication: A Literature Review. Research in Learning Technology, 26:1-16. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v26.2008 Tikly L. 2019. Education for Sustainable Development in the Postcolonial World: Towards a Transformative Agenda for Africa. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315211343 Wagner CS, Whetsell TA & Mukherjee S. 2019. International Research Collaboration: Novelty, Conventionality, and Atypicality in Knowledge Recombination. Research Policy, 48(5):1260-1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2019.01.002 Chapter 12 Comparative and International Education as Fields of Scholarship in South Africa and Japan and the Scope for Collaboration Between the Two Countries Shoko Yamada

Nagoya University Japan syamada@gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp CC Wolhuter

Comparative and International Education Professor North-West University South Africa Charl.Wolhuter@nwu.ac.za 12.1 Introduction The study of the internationalisation of higher education, and therefore of partnership between universities of any two countries, falls squarely within the scholarly field of Comparative and International Education. Moreover, in a project of partnership between universities from two countries, scholars in the field of Comparative and International Education can both add and gain significant value. It is therefore apt that the final chapter in this volume investigates the scope for collaboration between Japanese and South African scholars of Comparative and International Education. The chapter commences with a survey of the evolution and current state of Comparative and International Education at universities worldwide. This will form the framework for the next two sections, when the evolution and current state of Comparative and International Education in South Africa and Japan respectively will be the subject of investigation. These surveys will then be the basis for reflection on the scope for collaboration between scholars of Comparative and International Education in Japan and South Africa in the final section of the chapter. What transpired from the chapters of this book in terms of scope and caveats for collaboration between Japanese and South African universities will be summarised in the concluding part of the chapter and the role for scholars of Comparative and International Education in these two countries to guide the process of collaboration will be emphasised. 12.2 Comparative and International Education: A Field of Scholarship and Its Position at Universities Worldwide This section commences with a conceptual clarification of the term ‘Comparative and International Education’, followed by a brief outline of the historical evolution of the field. Its position at universities worldwide is then discussed, and the purposes or significance of the field is highlighted in the final part of the section. A wide and divergent assortment of the definition of Comparative and International Education is abound in the scholarly literature. For the purposes of this chapter, the following conceptual clarification of Wolhuter (2021) will be used as a working definition. Comparative Education is a three-in-one perspective on education. These three perspectives are:

1. An education system perspective: While it is not inconceivable that a single education institution can be the focus of a Comparative Education study, such an institution will always be placed and studied within the education system in which it functions,

2. A contextual perspective: Education systems are studied within the societal contexts in which these systems are embedded. This perspective entails both the study of contextual factors as shaping forces of education systems and, conversely, the effects that education systems have on society, and

3. A comparative perspective: Various education systems, within their societal embeddedness, are compared.

In view of trends in both the worlds of scholarship and education, such as globalisation, a belief has developed in recent times that the name of the field should change to Comparative and International Education. The term ‘International Education’ has a long history, with many meanings attached to it. In this chapter, ‘International Education’ is used as explained by Phillips & Schweisfurth (2014:60), namely that International Education refers to scholarship studying education through a lens bringing a global or an international perspective. Comparative and International Education has had a long historical evolution. The beginnings of the field can be traced back to two pre-scientific phases. These were a phase of casual travellers’ tales on foreign education practices, reaching back to times immemorial, and a second phase since the nineteenth century, when governments of newly formed nation-states assigned officials to conduct systematic, comprehensive studies of foreign education systems, with the aim to borrow best practices to improve the domestic education project. A third phase was launched by Marc-Antoinne Jullien in an 1816-1817 publication in which he pleaded for the collection of information of all education systems in the world to improve the fate of humanity. A regression set in the next phase, reaching its zenith in the inter-war decades of the twentieth century, when the attention of scholars was fixed on national education systems, studying each national system as an expression of the national character of each nation. Then in the fifth phase, breaking through after World War II and reaching its high water mark in the 1960s, scholars attempted to turn Comparative Education into a fully-fledged social science. There was an unlimited belief in the societal elevating power of education, and on a world scale, in education as the major instrument to modernise the developing nations of the world. The optimism of the 1960s turned into pessimism in the 1970s, when in a sixth phase attention turned to the effect that power relations in society had on education. Then, in a seventh phase in the 1990s, postmodernism became fashionable in the field, and a plethora of paradigms made its entry into the field. What is salient in the field today is the analyses and use of league tables from international test series (especially the International Programme of Student Assessment) PISA tests. Other noteworthy features in the field are the effect of neo-liberal economics, the Creed of Human Rights and Education and the issue of Social Justice. Regarding its position at universities, Comparative and International Education has had a roller coaster ride over the past 120 years, since its first appearance at the Teachers College at the University of Columbia. Furthermore, today its appearance at universities shows a chequered picture. What is helpful to clarify its position at universities is the three phases distinguished by Larsen, Majhanovich and Maseman (2007) in the development of the field at Canadian universities. The first phase is the establishment of Comparative Education chairs, departments, posts and programmes. The second phase is the disintegration of Comparative Education where the infrastructure built up in the first phase. The final phase is the broadening of Comparative Education where the field returns, not in the form of stand-alone courses, but is subsumed in courses such as globalisation and education, education and development and education and human rights. These three phases of the field’s presence at universities are notable at different parts of the world. Similar to the definitions and thematic scope of the field, its purposes (or at least proclaimed use) are in a constant state of expansion (see Wolhuter 2012). The conventional list of aims or points of significance of Comparative and International Education put forward by scholars in the field relates to satisfying the human need for knowledge (describing education systems), explaining education systems (from the contextual forces giving rise to the kaleidoscope of education systems around the world), improving education systems (identifying and borrowing or learning from best ideas, policies and practices to improve the domestic education project), assessing education systems, serving other fields of education scholarship and the philanthropic ideal (improving or ameliorating the condition of humanity or lives of people). But every study as to why it appears in programmes or what motivates students to study the field yields yet a new aim, purpose or use of the field (see Wolhuter 2012). Some other reasons for studying Comparative and International Education include students’ need to understand their own education system, to find work in a foreign country or education system, to understand foreign cultures, to understand nascent regional education systems (for example, the reason Comparative and International Education students in Greece cited for studying the field was to understand the new European integrated education system, of which they were destined to form part) and for international students to understand the exigencies of university study in their host country (the reason for the inclusion of a Comparative Education course in a master’s programme of educational leadership for international students at a Canadian University) (see Wolhuter 2012). To summarise the above, while the field of Comparative and International Education has an impressive list of purposes or selling points, there are perpetual attempts to downscale its presence at universities. 12.3 Comparative and International Education at Universities in South Africa As elsewhere in the world, the historical trajectory and present state of Comparative and International Education at universities in South Africa can only be understood within the societal and education context, particularly the higher education context. These have been explained in detail in Chapter 2, and only salient points impacting Comparative and International Education will be highlighted here. South Africa is located at the southern tip of Africa. While the country is enveloped by neighbouring African nations, South Africa is situated far from the (economic, political and scholarly) hub of the contemporary world, namely Western Europe and North America, with the emerging second hub of Eastern Asia. The country has a young population profile. South Africa is still in the throes of a major exercise of sociopolitical reconstruction, which commenced in 1994. This project has included the drafting of a new Constitution, putting in place a Constitutional Democracy, buttressed by a Bill of Human Rights. The major challenges facing the country include rife inequality, unemployment and an extant lack of social capital (evident in high incidences of problems such as crime, vandalism, aggression and reckless driving of motor cars). According to some estimates, 75% of South African youth are unemployed (Flanagan 2021). Formal education commenced in South Africa rather late in 1652, after the Dutch East Indian Company established a refreshment station where Cape Town is today. Education developed slowly and was segregated along racial lines, with White South African children enjoying schools much better than that of Black South African children. One of the aims of the post-1994 sociopolitical reconstruction of the country has been to transform education, to build a new education system characterised by equal education opportunities, education for all, high-quality education and multicultural education. However, on all counts, well-nigh thirty years after 1994, the education system of South Africa still falls short of these lofty ideals—and by a long stretch at that. Higher education commenced even later. The rudiments of a university appeared only in the second half of the nineteenth century, while fully-fledged universities were established only in the twentieth century. Universities also developed along segregated lines. Furthermore, by 1994, the gross higher education enrolment ratio stood at 14%. Not only was the aggregate gross higher education enrolment ratio low for an upper-middle income country, but participation rates were very unequal: gross enrolment ratios for Whites were significantly higher than those of Blacks. The university sector was adversely affected by the international academic boycott, which was waged against South Africa, c1960-1990. Thus in 1994, the main challenges regarding the university sector included reintegration into the international fold, expanding and equalising access and desegregation. Since 1994, enrolments have grown spectacularly. Much equalisation has taken place, although the composition of the student body is still not an accurate reflection of South Africa’s population profile. Further to the problem of physical access to higher education, there is also the question of epistemic and financial access, which have not been completely and permanently addressed. Internationalisation gained good momentum on many counts and South African higher education became well integrated into the global higher education project soon after 1994. Judged by campus unrest, which continues to plague university campuses sporadically, the question of the decolonisation of academe has not been settled. Comparative Education secured a foothold at South African universities during the 1960s (Bergh & Soudien 2006). It gained its strongest prominence at the historically White Afrikaans and historically Black universities, but never enjoyed a strong presence at the historically White English universities. At the historically White Afrikaans and historically Black universities, it became very established, not only in standalone undergraduate and graduate education courses, but it also had a very strong institutional infrastructure (in terms of Departments of Comparative Education and staff exclusively specialising in Comparative Education), as strong as in very few other universities in the world (see Wolhuter 1994). Unfortunately, almost as soon as the teaching of Comparative Education started, it was affected by the academic boycott which hit the country as from c1960. The field was taught in the interwar “factors and forces” mould, where mention was made of the ideas of 1960s scholars, namely Bereday, King, Noah and Eckstein. Even the ideas of these scholars did not percolate through to the content of courses (apart from mentioning their names and main ideas), nor did they inform research. But what is more serious, is that the field got totally isolated from international developments as from the early 1970s. Progressive scholarship in South Africa and beyond, then and now, accuse the teachers and courses of Comparative Education of serving as an intellectual justification for the government of the day’s segregation education policies. Unfortunately, when South Africa finally did join the international mainstream again, by the end of the century after the sociopolitical change of 1994, Comparative Education fell victim to the educational and teacher educational reforms which followed the 1994 political change. As part of the 1994 overhaul of education, the radical change was made to switch from content-based education (deemed to be too authoritarian, stifling the cognitive development of students) to outcomes-based, or competency-based, education. In line with this change, the requirements of initial teacher education programmes were altered too. Initial teacher education programmes would be informed by a set of competencies or roles a teacher had to perform, and the disciplines of Education, such as Philosophy of Education, History of Education and Comparative Education, had to make way. What remained was that Comparative Education figured in undergraduate and postgraduate education programmes, not as stand-alone courses, but subsumed in courses such as ‘Globalisation and Education’, ‘Education and Human Rights’, ‘Education and Development’ and the like. The first problem is that in such a situation, Comparative and International Education “flows a mile wide, but an inch deep”” as one of the leaders in the field, Vandra Masemann (2008) once remarked. Students never become acquainted with the scope, theoretical frame(s) and methodological bases of the field. This had a devastating effect on the place of Comparative and International Education at South African universities. Further to that, Comparative Education as a stand-alone course virtually disappeared from initial teacher education programmes and remained only in isolated cases in postgraduate Education programmes. Then, on 19 February 2015, the Minister of Higher Education and Training issued the Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (RSA 2015). This latest policy statement stipulated that 50% of teacher education programmes credits should be courses in the phase or subject area specialisation of the student, and 40% of credits should be in Foundations of Education (such as History of Education, Philosophy of Education and Sociology of Education), general pedagogy (instructional science) and situational learning (learning in specific situations, such as classrooms, schools and in the community). The remaining 10% is left to the judgment of the particular teacher education institution. This development boded well for a resuscitation of the field in stand-alone courses, at undergraduate and graduate education courses at South African universities. However, almost six years down the line, little is visible in restoring the field to its once glorious position at South African universities. The number of universities with stand-alone Comparative and International Education courses as part of their initial teacher education programmes stands at no more than five, while at the postgraduate level, the position of the field is no stronger. One noteworthy development is that the University of South Africa (UNISA) (a distance education university, also the largest university in South Africa) has re-introduced a module combining the History of Education and Comparative and International Education at the postgraduate level. In terms of infrastructure, no Department of Comparative Education has re-appeared (though this also has to do with the general restructuring of the South African universities over the past few decades, doing away with Departments as units and creating larger Schools); neither has Chairs or Faculty posts exclusively allocated to Comparative and International Education re-surfaced. Organisationally, the Southern African Comparative and History of Education Society (SACHES) was established in 1991 in Katberg, South Africa. From its 35 founding members, membership has quickly grown to about 300, around which it has now been standing for many years (see Wolhuter & Nyatuka 2022). SACHES was admitted to the World Council of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES) in 1994 and hosted the Comparative Education World Conference in 1998 in Cape Town. SACHES has been organising an annual conference since its inception and also has its own peer-reviewed journal, Southern African Review of Education. However, in terms of book production, the organisation has been lacking. 12.4 Comparative and International Education at Universities in Japan As discussed earlier in this chapter, one can find the origin of Comparative Education in the casual writings of travellers who visited other countries. Later, as the nation-states emerged in Europe, there were systematic efforts by government officials to learn from the educational practices and systems elsewhere, either to improve the domestic system or to identify its comparative strengths. In Japan, similar records on foreign education exist in its history. There are many writings by Japanese who travelled overseas since the seventh century or even earlier. Some travellers were dispatched officially by the authorities of the time to borrow ideas and models from advanced societies, and others were castaways from wrecked boats or merchants who had a chance to stay overseas and return home. However, for the 250 years before the fall apart of the Edo feudal government in the mid-nineteenth century, Japanese contacts with foreign cultures were extremely limited. The national border was closed, and foreigners coming from and Japanese going overseas were prohibited except for a couple of designated locations. The establishment of the modern national government in 1868 changed the long introvert nature of Japanese society. As the threat of colonisation by the Western powers loomed, the government rushed to modernise various aspects of Japanese governance and economic and social structures to protect itself and catch up with the West. The national and regional governments sent many competent young people to study in Europe and America. For example, in 1871 alone, 174 people were sent to study abroad. The top destination was the United States of America (USA) (44%), followed by the United Kingdom (UK) (28%) and France (14%) (Ogata 1961:23-26). The Japanese government invited many experts from these countries to transfer modern knowledge and technology to newly established schools for advanced learning. Eventually, these foreign expert teachers were replaced by Japanese who studied abroad, translated many books and introduced foreign systems to fit Japanese soil. Considering there was no international financial aid mechanism such as the loans provided by the World Bank, it amazing to see the Japanese have accomplished all these in a few decades with their own means. These schools established for advanced learning developed later into universities, with seven imperial universities in Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, Nagoya, Tohoku, Kyushu and Hokkaido at the top. As this history shows, the initial form of foreign educational studies was motivated to borrow ideas from the modernised West. Later, with Japan’s fast catch-up and military competition against the West, the interest in neighbouring Asian countries has taken shape as the potential objects of colonisation. Therefore, in the early twentieth century, various ministries and offices commissioned research on societies and people of these countries while looking up the models of colonial education from other colonial powers (Ozawa 1981:68-69). Foreign educational studies that contributed to Japanese colonialism are controversial but cannot be overlooked. Similar to the Western universities at which the institutional foundations of foreign educational studies were developed during the colonial period, Japanese Comparative Education, which flourished after World War II, has its roots in this period. The first university programme under the name of ‘Comparative Education’ was established in Kyushu University in 1952, followed by Hiroshima University (1953), Kyoto University (1965) and Tokyo University (1967). These are imperial and national research universities. As will be discussed later, the institutional settings of these strongholds of Comparative Education characterised mainstream practices of Japanese Comparative Education, at least in its early days. That is to focus more on the studies of education systems and policies in other countries and conduct macro-level comparisons rather than being practical. Japan Comparative Education Society (JCES) was established in 1965, making it one of the oldest Comparative Education societies and a founding member of the World Congress of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES). At the first meeting held in Hiroshima in 1965, membership was 95. Membership increased steadily from 408 in 1980 and 601 in 1990 to 1,153 in 2010, although there has been a slight decrease in recent years (977 in 2017) (Ozawa 1981:74 and information provided by JCES secretariat). In the following section, we discuss the research trends of Japanese Comparative Education based on the analysis of the articles published in JCES journal, Comparative Education (hereafter CE-J to differentiate from the Comparative Education journal published in the UK) since the first volume published in 1975 to vol. 59 in 2019. Similar to many other journals, CE-J publishes both peer-reviewed and invited articles. While papers in the former category are self-directed works by individual scholars, the latter constitute special issues whose themes are decided by the editorial board and reflect the collective interests of JCES. Because of the interest of this chapter to trace the epistemological trend, we will focus on patterns found in the latter category – invited articles. 12.4.1 Japanese Comparative Education Epistemologies and Its Divergence From English Discourse Throughout different time periods, the theme of ‘research trend’ arose from time to time, particularly among invited papers that constitute special issues. In the inaugural volume of CE-J in 1975, leading scholars of the time expressed their views about what Comparative Education should be. Michiya Niibori (1975:18) argued that the comparison for Comparative Education should be different from foreign case studies in other educational research and that the rigorous and systematic methodology would identify the foreign studies as Comparative Education. Niibori’s argument echoes the drives for methodological elaboration in contemporary English literature (Noah & Eckstein 1969; Holmes 1972). Also, Susumu Ikeda (1975:7-9) considered that the act of comparison itself is a mere process for a comprehensive understanding of education in a particular society and that Comparative Education has its prospect in the synthesis at the crossroads of philosophical, historical, social and global perspectives. Ikeda’s orientation towards comprehensive analysis seems to match the call in the anglophone circle for analysis of education in its ecology (Koehl 1977). In fact, this argument has been the major backbone of Japanese Comparative Education, being reconfirmed by many influential scholars throughout its history. The divergence between English and Japanese academic discourses would have been how such a desire for comprehensive analysis was translated into actual research practices and then abstracted back to the epistemological discourse. In contrast to English publications that could be classified into different theoretical groups such as positivism, phenomenalism, structuralism or humanism, such classification by -ism and theories seems to be hard for Japanese publications. Certainly, the necessity of theorisation has been raised many times in invited articles. Some voices claimed that comparative studies have to be designed to better understand Japan’s educational issues and provide information for Japanese policymakers (Ichikawa 1990:7). Still, a large part of the effort towards methodological sophistication was directed at deepening the contextual understanding instead of adopting abstract theories or drawing lessons by finding patterns. It is said that a truly good work of area studies does not cut off one or two aspects of educational practices based on agendas brought from the outside. Repeated fieldwork is required so that the theories emerge from a contextual understanding of educational issues (Otsuka 2009:45-50). It is symbolic to see that there was a special issue titled, “Frontier of Area Studies of Education” in 2001 (volume 27), which was meant to follow up on a series of special issues on epistemologies in the 1990s (Ehara 2001:4). One of the causes of such Japanese divergence from English discourse is the difference in institutional conditions. As some scholars have pointed out, Japanese Comparative Education has identified itself in the domains that do not compete with but complement neighbouring fields such as educational administration, educational sociology or educational philosophy (Ogawa 2013). Since the first Comparative Education programme was established in Kyushu University in 1952, major programmes that train young scholars to accumulate research work in this field have concentrated on imperial and key national universities, with some significant exceptions outside of this category. Kondo (2013) points out that imperial universities’ research-oriented nature contributed to Japanese Comparative Education by focusing on the system and social and policy contexts rather than on educational content. Another factor that characterises Japanese Comparative Education relates to its relatively short history in these institutions. Since there were already established programmes and specialists in sociology, administration, economics and other studies of domestic education, Comparative Education found its position, which does not conflict with existing academic fields. Therefore, it insulated itself from educational borrowing for domestic adaptation by becoming less committed to drawing policy implications or having ideological agendas. Such attitude in research is peculiar not only in comparison to the scholarly practices in the English language but also to those before and during World War II when foreign educational studies were closely linked with the national interest of modernisation or colonialism. 12.4.2 Comparative Education in Japan as a Major Donor for International Development The 1990s saw a dramatic increase in JCES membership, which accompanied a new research trend shared among people whose backgrounds differed from conventional comparative educationists. As the author discusses elsewhere (Yamada 2015, 2022 forthcoming), Japan became the top provider of official development aid to developing countries in 1990 and continued to be a major donor afterward. To design and implement education-related projects overseas, the Japanese government invested in training young experts. Graduate schools on international development were established in some national universities in Japan, while scholarships were provided to those who pursued postgraduate degrees in relevant fields at overseas educational institutions. Then, those oriented towards international development constituted a significant group in JCES. Unlike those trained in the schools of education in research universities, the emerging group trained in the schools of international development and cooperation is driven by the global agenda such as EFA, MDGs or SDGs and the desire to feed the policymaking process with their research findings. It is telling that an increasing number of papers published in CE-J were about Africa and Latin America, unlike in the earlier period when most papers were about Western countries or Asia. Reflecting such changing dynamics in JCES in the 1990s invited articles increased in the category of ‘trends of international development aid’ and ‘gender’, with the special issue in 1996 titled, ”Women, Development, and Education: Consideration on the Issues for Comparative Education”. The themes of special issues and topical research collections became diversified in the following decade. 12.4.3 Contemporary Role of Comparative Education Nowadays, be it Comparative Education or not, it is common to conduct studies of the situations in other countries, which raises the question of the academic core of Comparative Education. If foreign studies alone cannot constitute the academic identity of Comparative Education, are there any theories or methodologies which define its uniqueness? Such self-searching inquiries are not unrelated to the fact that special issues of the journal repeatedly provoke discussion about research trends and epistemology. In the 1990s, the expansion of JCES occurred by incorporating a global agenda which have not been looked at in any educational fields, such as international development, gender or human rights. While securing its unique position, such a trend has further alienated Comparative Education from domestic educational challenges and practices. Now, to conclude this section, we would like to call the readers’ attention to the potential role of Comparative Education studies in shedding light on the domestic challenges from comparative perspectives developed through the studies of societies very different from Japan. For example, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the learning process is growingly personalised by requiring students to study at home with the aid of new educational technologies. The learning process has not been shared and hidden from the teachers’ eyes in the prolonged lockdown of schools. This is a global phenomenon experienced by all students and teachers. Therefore, Japanese comparative educationists may need to get away from the familiar presupposition that Japanese educational practices are better and more mature than those societies they study and consider the means to overcome common challenges. To do that, researchers should distinguish the local and cross-cutting factors in their comparative studies and be ready to commit to the policymaking of their own societies. Another example of the contemporary phenomena which affects many societies simultaneously is the global educational discourse that influences not only national policymaking but also teaching and learning practices in the classroom. Many comparative educationists recognise and analyse the effect of international assessments such as PISA or discourse on twenty-first competencies on national policies. However, because of their disconnection from domestic affairs, they tend not to take part in the discussion on the acute educational challenges of their own countries. We think there is also a demand for Comparative Education today to analyse global themes that are connected to the classroom level and provide perspectives that would be overlooked by people who only focus on domestic issues. That way, Comparative Education studies can link the global and the local, and policies and practices, in the true sense. 12.5 Conclusion Emanating From the Chapters of the Book: From A Comparative and International Education Perspective. The theme of this book is the scope for partnership and collaboration between Japanese and South African universities. During the past 30 years, since the end of the Cold War, international donors (mainly from the Global North) have poured US$1.2 trillion worth of development assistance into Africa (Mills 2021:1). Yet little can be shown for this effort. The goals which had driven this aid largely seem as far away as in 1990. In launching a partnership programme between South African and Japanese universities, the potential significance of Comparative and International Education scholarship lies in teasing out challenges faced by the education sector in South Africa, contributing to a fuller understanding of these challenges and drawing on the experience of the rest of the world, including Japan, in tabling suggestions on how to address these challenges. The chapters of this book have transpired much in terms of scope and caveats for collaboration between Japanese and South African universities. There is a role for scholars of Comparative and International Education in these two countries to guide the process of collaboration. Chapter 9 explained that Japanese universities long neglected the internationalisation of higher education to their own detriment. In the frantic race of universities in every national jurisdiction to become super institutions in the early twenty-first century, the recently published edited volume of Black (2022) underscores how internationalisation has risen to the top of the agenda among Japanese universities. Already in the first chapters of this book, surveying the societal and higher education contextual contours of South Africa and Japan, it was made clear that the demographic complementarity of South Africa and Japan makes these two jurisdictions ideal partners for university partnerships. The case studies presented in this book provide objective lessons in the advantages of international university partnerships, between Japanese and African universities in particular. These include brain circulation, gaining wide exposure in research fields, getting access to data, giving wider public fora to indigenous knowledge systems, gaining academic mentoring and linking the world of education with the world of work. It is by focusing on these potential benefits of partnerships between Japanese and South African universities that scholars of Comparative and International Education can play a valuable role. References Bergh A-M & Soudien C. 2006. The Institutionalization of Comparative Education Discourses in South Africa. South African Review of Education, 12(2):35-59. Black G. (ed). 2022. Education Reform Policy at a Japanese Super Global University: Policy Translation, Migration and Mutation. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003011378 Ehara T. 2001. Tokushu no Shushi [Purpose of the Special Issue]. Hikaku Kyoikugaku Kenkyu [Comparative Education], 27:4. Flanagan J. 2021. 75% of Youth in South Africa are Unemployed. The Times, 7 June. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/75-of-youth-in-south-africa-are-unemployed-2krzpzvmx [21 December 2021]. Holmes B. 1972. Comparative Education as a Scientific Study. British Journal of Educational Studies, 20(2):205-219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.1972.9973346 Ichikawa S. 1990. Hikaku Kyoiku Saiko: Nihon teki Tokushitsu Kaimei notameno Hikaku Kenkyu no Susume [Reconsideration of Comparative Education: Promoting Comparative Studies to Identify Japanese Characteristics]. Hikaku Kyoikugaku Kenkyu [Comparative Education] 16:5-18. Ikeda S. 1975. Hikaku Kyoikugaku kara Sogo Kyoikugaku he: Hikaku Kyoikugaku heno Hitotsuno Jyogen [From Comparative Education to Comprehensive Education: A Proposal to Comparative Education]. Hikaku Kyoikugaku Kenkyu [Comparative Education] 1:7-9. Koehl R. 1977. The Comparative Study of Education: Prescription and Practice. Comparative Education Review, 21(2/3):177-194. https://doi.org/10.1086/445938 Kondo T. 2013. Hikaku Kyoikugaku niokeru Kyoiku Naiyo Seisaku kenkyu: Nihon niokeru Genjyo to Kadai [Studies on Educational Contents and Policies in Comparative Education]. In: S Yamada and M Morishita (eds.). Hikaku Kyoikugaku no Chihei wo Hiraku: Tayo na Gakumonkan to Chi no Kyodo [Opening the Horizon of Comparative Education: Various Academic Perspectives and Intellectual Collaboration]. Tokyo: Toshindo, 1-20. Larsen M, Majhanovich S & Maseman V. 2007. Comparative Education in Canadian Universities. In: CC Wolhuter & N Popov (eds). Comparative Education as Discipline at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: Bulgarian Comparative Education Society, 19-30. https://doi.org/10.5206/cie-eci.v36i3.9104 Masemann V. 2008. Comment Made at the 2008 International Comparative Education Conference of the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society. Mills G. 2021. Expensive Poverty: Why Aid Fails and How It Can Work. Johannesburg: Pan Macmillan South Africa. Niibori M. 1975. Nihon no Hikaku Kyoikugaku no Kenkyu Hohojyo no Shomondai: Kyoiku Shakaigaku teki Approach [Issues on Research Methodologies of Japanese Comparative Education]. Hikaku Kyoikugaku Kenkyu [Comparative Education] 1:17-22. Noah HJ & Eckstein MA. 1969. Toward a Science of Comparative Education. [City]: New York: Macmillan. Ogata H. 1961. Seiyo Kyoiku Inyu no Hoto [Methods of Introducing Western Education]. Tokyo: Kodansha. Ogawa Y. 2013. Higashi Asia wo Miru Hikaku Kyoikugaku [Comparative Education Focused on East Asia]. In: S Yamada and M Morishita (eds.). Hikaku Kyoikugaku no Chihei wo Hiraku: Tayo na Gakumonkan to Chi no Kyodo [Opening the Horizon of Comparative Education: Various Academic Perspectives and Intellectual Collaboration]. Tokyo: Toshindo, [39-45]. Otsuka Y. 2009. The Challenges of Fieldwork in Comparative Education Studies in Japan: A Methodological Consideration. Educational Studies in Japan, 4:37-51. https://doi.org/10.7571/esjkyoiku.4.37 Ozawa S. 1981. Nihon ni okeru Hikaku Kyoiku [Comparative Education in Japan]. In: Y Okihara (ed). Hikaku Kyoiku Gaku [Comparative Education Studies]. Tokyo: Yushindo Kobunsha, 57-75. Phillips DP & Schweisfurth M. 2014. Comparative and International Education: An Introduction to Theory, Method and Practice (2nd edition). London: Bloomsbury. Republic of South Africa (RSA) (Department of Higher Education and Training). 2015. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications. Pretoria: Government Printer. Wolhuter CC. 1994. Vergelykende Perspektief op Vergelykende Opvoedkunde in Suid-Afrika (Comparative Perspective on Comparative Education in South Africa). Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde, 14(3):155-159. Wolhuter CC. 2012. Also a Door to the Inside of a New House — Yet Another Use for Comparative Education. In: N Popov, C Wolhuter, B Leutwyler, G Hilton, J Ogunleye & PA Almeida (eds.). International Perspectives on Education. Sofia: Bulgarian Comparative Education Society, 23-28. Wolhuter CC. 2021. Comparative and International Education: A Field of Scholarship Exploring Critical Issues in Contemporary Education. In: HJ Steyn & CC Wolhuter (eds.). Critical Issues in Education: Comparative-International Perspectives. Noordbrug: Keurkopie. Forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.4102/aosis.2020.BK207.01 Wolhuter CC & Nyatuka B. 2022. Southern African Comparative and History of Education Society (SACHES): Looking Back, and Forward After Three Decades. In: R Hayhoe & A Hickling-Hudson (eds.). History and Development of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies. Leiden: Brill/Sense. Forthcoming. Yamada S. 2015. The Constituent Elements of Comparative Education in Japan: A Comparison with North America. Comparative Education Review, 59(2):234-260. https://doi.org/10.1086/680172 Yamada S. 2022 (Forthcoming). Synchrony and Diachrony of Multiple Comparative Educations: Japanese Language Publications in a Global Academic Field. In: R Arnove, C Torres and L Misaszek (eds.). Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local. 5th Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. 51 MEXT website. What is EDU-Port Japan? https://www.eduport.mext.go.jp/en/about-en/summary-en/ [20 November 2021]. 52 NRF website. Knowledge, Interchange and Collaboration (KIC) 2nd Call: Scientific Events/ Travel Grants 2021. https://www.

[20 November 2021]. nrf.ac.za/sites/default/files/KIC%20Review%20Period%202%20-%202021.pdf

Table 4.3: Summary of the scholarships available for international students (To be applied for before coming to Japan)

	Japanese Government Scholarship via the MEXT Scholarship
Young	Research students	Teacher	Under	College of	Specialised	Japanese
Amount of monthly support	\ 242,000	Non-degree students: ¥ 143,000 Master’s course: ¥ 144,000 Doctoral course: ¥ 145,000	¥ 143,000	¥ 117,000	¥ 117,000	¥ 117,000	¥ 117,000
Tuition fee exemption	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Free flight ticket	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Payment period	1 year	Up to 2 years	Up to 1.5 years	5 years	4 years	3 years	1 school year
Grade-based	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Household income-based	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	Japanese Government Scholarship via the MEXT Scholarship
Young	Research students	Teacher	Under	College of	Specialised	Japanese
Screening process	Document screening, written examination and interview
For inquiries	Embassy recommendation (application through Japanese embassies) Contact the Japanese embassy in your own specific country or region. ( https://www.mofa.go.jp/about/emb_cons/mofaserv.html )
✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
University recommendation (Application through Japanese universities) Based on the university’s exchange agreement, Japanese universities conduct examinations for international student candidates. Therefore, consult the university or school you currently attend and find out the agreement.
-	✔	-	✔	✔	-	✔
	Japanese Government Scholarship via the Monbukagakusho Honors Scholarship for privately financed international students	Local government and local international associations	Private foundations	On-campus scholarships, tuition fee exemption or reduction systems
	Japanese Government Scholarship via the MEXT Scholarship
Young	Research students	Teacher	Under	College of	Specialised	Japanese
Conditions	Eligibility requirements include: Privately financed international students who have achieved an excellent score in the examination for the Japanese university and want to enrol as regular students in universities (Doctor, Master & Undergraduate courses), junior colleges, colleges of technology, specialised training colleges, and Japanese language institutions.	Applicable scholarships include: • College of Technology students • Specialised training college students • University or junior college preparatory Japanese language programme students • Students at the Japanese language institutes other than those in 3 above • Junior college students • University undergraduate students • Graduate school-level research students • Master’s programme students • Doctoral programme students • Professional degree programme students
Amount of monthly support	• Japanese language institution student: ¥ 30,000 • Others: ¥ 48,000	¥ 60,000~¥200,000
	Japanese Government Scholarship via the MEXT Scholarship
Young	Research students	Teacher	Under	College of	Specialised	Japanese
Tuition fee exemption	-	Find the details here: 1. Scholarship for International Students in Japan 2021-2022 (JASSO 2021c) 2. Scholarship and Tuition Reduction System (JASSO 2021d) 3. Japan Scholarship (Japan Study Support 2021)
Free flight ticket	-
Payment period	1 year or 6 months
Grade-based	✔
Household income-based	✔
For inquiries	Contact the school you intend to study at in Japan.	Contact your school.

Table 4.4: Eligibility requirements in MEXT Scholarship

Research students	You must be under 35 years old and a college graduate (includes prospective graduates) or you must have completed 16 years of schooling.
Teacher training students	You must be under 35 years old and a graduate of a college or teacher training college. You must have at least five years of active experience as a teacher in a primary, secondary or teacher training college in your country. (Please note that college and university teachers currently in active service are not eligible for this scholarship).
Undergraduate students	You must be at least 17 and under 25 years old and have completed 12 years of school education or have completed courses in a school comparable to a high school (includes prospective graduates).
Japanese studies students	Applicants must be between 18 to 30 years old. Applicants must be enrolled as undergraduate students in faculties or schools which major in Japanese language or Japanese culture in a university outside Japan at the time when they come to Japan and must be enrolled in the home institution at the time when they return to their home countries.
College of Technology students	You must be at least 17 and under 25 years old and have completed school education comparable to a high school education (a minimum of 11 years beginning in primary school) (includes prospective graduates).
Specialised training college students	You must be at least 17 and under 25 years old and have completed 12 years of schooling or have completed school education comparable to a Japanese high school (includes prospective graduates).

Resource: JASSO 2021a

Table 5.1: Standard period of the programme

		Three and half years
Passage to the graduate school	Passage to JOCV selection	6 months	3 months	2 years	9 months
Lectures and preparation for thesis	Preparation such as JOCV pre-training	International cooperation as a volunteer and research activity as a graduate student	Thesis writing
Seminar

Table 5.2: Standard schedule and necessary units for first term entrance (pre-training in September and dispatch in December) 1 1 These are the required units after the reorganisation of the graduate school in 2020.

Time	Activities	Required courses	Required units
1st year	1st term	Entrance in April Taking courses between April and August	More than 22 units such as common subjects, specialised subjects and others	More than 22 units
2nd term	Pre-training in September Dispatch in December	Seminar	4 units
2nd year	1st term	International cooperation volunteer Fieldwork	Fieldwork (2) and internship (2) Seminar
2nd term
3rd year	1st term
2nd term	Come back in December Mid-term presentation	Submit report on fieldwork Complete and report on internship
4th year	1st term	Completion in September	Special research (1-2 years) Completion of master’s thesis	4 units
			Total	More than 30 units