Kanene: The untold stories of psychological wounds of combat after South Africa’s demobilisation among Black SANDF soldiers

Abrahams, B. (2006). Providing trauma counselling and psycho-social support to military veterans. National Peace Accord Trust.

Adetiba, T. C. (2017). South Africa’s military and peacekeeping efforts: A new paradigm shift in its foreign policy since 1994. Journal of Economics and Behavioural Studies, 9(5), 157-168. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v9i5.1920

Adonis, C. K. (2016). Exploring the salience of intergenerational trauma among children and grandchildren of victims of apartheid-era gross human rights violations. Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology, 16(1-2). https://doi.org/10.1080/20797222.2016.1184838

Agüero, F. (1998). Legacies of transitions: Institutionalisation, the military, and democracy in South America. Mershon International Studies Review, 42(Supplement_2), 383-404. https://doi.org/10.2307/254439

Alford, C. F. (2016). Trauma, culture, and PTSD. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57600-2

APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Anderson, J. W., & Winer, J. A. (2003). Recent psychoanalytic theorists and their relevance to psychobiography: Winnicott, Kernberg, and Kohut. Annual of Psychoanalysis, 31, 79–94.

Anderson, R. (Ed.). (1992). Clinical lectures on Klein and Bion (No. 14). Psychology Press.

Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Stewart, L., Philpott, R., & Hejdenberg, J. (2009). Comparison of immediate-onset and delayed-onset posttraumatic stress disorder in military veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 767-777. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017203

Andrews, G., Goldberg, D. P., Krueger, R. F., Carpenter, W. T., Hyman, S. E., Sachdev, P., & Pine, D. S. (2009). Exploring the feasibility of a meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11: Could it improve utility and validity? Paper 1 of 7 of the thematic section: A proposal for a meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine, 39(12), 1993-2000. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709990250

Arendt, H. (1981). The life of the mind. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Beck, J. G., Grant, D. M., Read, J. P., Clapp, J. D., Coffey, S. F., Miller, L. M., & Palyo, S. A. (2008). The Impact of Event Scale-revised: psychometric properties in a sample of motor vehicle accident survivors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(2):187-98. http://doi.org//10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.02.007

Berdal, M. (2013). Reflections on post-war violence and peacebuilding. In The peace in between (pp. 309–326). Routledge.

Bethlehem, L., & Zalmanovich, T. (2020). Celebrity and protest in the anti-apartheid movement. Critical Arts, 34(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02560046.2020.1725775

Bion, W. R. (1970). Attention and interpretation. Karnac Books.

Blizard, R. A., & Bluhm, A. M. (1994). Attachment to the abuser: Integrating object-relations and trauma theories in treatment of abuse survivors. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 31(3), 383. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.31.3.383

Blum-Kulka, S. (1990). You don’t touch lettuce with your fingers: Parental politeness in family discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 14(2), 259–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(90)90083-P

Boals, A. (2018). Trauma in the eye of the beholder: Objective and subjective definitions of trauma. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 28(1), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000050

Bowsher, J. (2019). Memory, counter-memory and resistance: Notes on the ‘Greek Debt Truth Commission’. In The sociology of debt (pp. 69–90). Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvggx2fq.8

Breslau, J. (2004). Introduction: Cultures of trauma: Anthropological views of posttraumatic stress disorder in international health. Culture, Medicine & Psychiatry, 28(2). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MEDI.0000034421.07612.c8

Breslau, N., & Davis, G. C. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The etiological specificity of wartime stressors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.5.578

Britton, R. (1998). Naming and containing. In R. Britton (Ed.), Belief and imagination (pp. 19–28). Routledge.

Brooke, R. (2010). War, trauma, and bringing them all home. Psychology in Society, 40, 103–107.

Brooke, R. (2017). An archetypal approach to treating combat posttraumatic stress disorder. In D. Downing & J. Mills (Eds.), Outpatient treatment of psychosis: Psychodynamic approaches to evidence-based practice (pp. 171–195). Karnac Books. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429478123-7

Bryan, C. J., Bryan, A. O., Roberge, E., Leifker, F. R., & Rozek, D. C. (2018). Moral injury, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicidal behavior among National Guard personnel. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000290

Burki, N. (2019). From the theory to the practice of liberation: Fanon, May ‘68, and the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa. In A global history of anti-apartheid: ‘Forward to freedom’ in South Africa (pp. 105–130). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03652-2_4

Camus, A. (1942). The absurd man. In The myth of Sisyphus: And other essays (pp. 65-92). Alfred A. Knopf

Carmona, L., Camilo, C., Carvalho, V. S., & Chambel, M. J. (2024). Post-traumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1), 2413735. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2024.2413735

Caruth, C. (2021). Globalisation and the theory of trauma: A conversation with Cathy Caruth. In Trauma and literature in an age of globalisation (pp. 9–35). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003056317-3

Christopher, J. C., Bickhard, M. H., & Lambeth, G. S. (2001). Otto Kernberg’s object relations theory: A metapsychological critique. Theory and Psychology, 11(5), 687–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354301115006

Clark, N. L., & Worger, W. H. (2023). Voices of Sharpeville: The long history of racial injustice. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003257806

Cloitre, M. (2020). ICD-11 complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Simplifying diagnosis in trauma populations. British Journal of Psychiatry, 216(3), 129–131. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2020.43

Cloitre, M., Courtois, C. A., Ford, J. D., Green, B. L., Alexander, P., Briere, J., & Van der Hart, O. (2012). The ISTSS expert consensus treatment guidelines for complex PTSD in adults. Retrieved from: http://www.istss.org

Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. V. D., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20444

Cock, J. (1990). Political violence. In B. McKendrick & W. Hoffman (Eds.), People and violence in South Africa (pp. 44-72). Oxford University Press.

Cock, J. (2005). ‘Guards and guns’: Towards privatised militarism in post-apartheid South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 31(4), 791-803. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070500370589

Cole, E., Rothblum, E. D., & Espin, O. M. (2013). Refugee women and their mental health: Shattered societies, shattered lives. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203729267

Corrigan, E. G., & Gordon, P. E. (Eds.). (1995). The mind object: Precocity and pathology of self-sufficiency. Jason Aronson.

Courtois, C. A. (2004). Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41(4), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.41.4.412

Crum-Cianflone, N. F., & Jacobson, I. (2014). Gender differences of post-deployment post-traumatic stress disorder among service members and veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. Epidemiologic Reviews, 36(1), 5-18. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxt005

Davies, J. M., & Frawley, M. G. (1994). Treating the adult survivor of childhood sexual abuse (Vol. 1). Basic Books.

De Zulueta, F. (2006). From pain to violence: The traumatic roots of destructiveness. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470713167

Derrida, J. (1994). The deconstruction of actuality: An interview with Jacques Derrida. Radical Philosophy, 68(Autumn), 3-28.

Derrida, J. (2001). Writing and difference. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203991787

Derrida, J. (2004). For what tomorrow…: A dialogue. Stanford University Press.

Doherty, C. (2015). Trauma and the conscript memoirs of the South African ‘Border War’. English in Africa, 42(2), 25-56. https://doi.org/10.4314/eia.v42i2.2

Dole, R. (2007). Albert Camus. Twayne Publishers.

Duckham, B. (2011). Bipolar illness, God, and object relations: The treatment of M. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 81(2-3), 268-291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377317.2011.589302

Dunn, E. C., Nishimi, K., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84, 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004

Dyani-Mhango, N. (2022). South Africa’s accountability for international crimes: Revisiting the (non) prosecution of perpetrators of apartheid for crimes against humanity. In National accountability for international crimes in Africa (pp. 471-526). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88044-6_14

Eagle, G. (2014). From evolution to discourse: Key conceptual debates in the history and study of trauma. Psychology in Society, 47, 1-20.

Eisenbruch, M. (1991). From post-traumatic stress disorder to cultural bereavement: Diagnosis of Southeast Asian refugees. Social Science & Medicine, 33(6), 673-680. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(91)90021-4

Ekman, P., Sorenson, E. R., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion. Science, 164(3875), 86-88. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.164.3875.86

Elliott, R., Fischer, C. T., & Rennie, D. L. (1999). Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 215-229. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466599162782

Ellis, S. (2011). The importance of armed resistance in South Africa’s shift from colonialism to apartheid. Unpublished manuscript. University of Cape Town.

Engelhard, I. M., Huijding, J., Van den Hout, M. A., & de Jong, P. J. (2007). Vulnerability associations and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in soldiers deployed to Iraq. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(10), 2317-2325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.04.005

Esterhuyse, A. (2011). Educating for professionalism: A new military for a new South Africa. Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, 34(2). https://doi.org/10.5787/34-2-22

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1943). The war neuroses: Their nature and significance. British Medical Journal, 1, 183–186. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4284.183

Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1954). An object-relations theory of the personality. The British Medical Journal, 183-186.

Figley, C. R. (Ed.). (1978). Psychosocial adjustment among Vietnam veterans: An overview of the research. In Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans: Theory, research and treatment implications (pp. 57-70). Brunner/Mazel.

Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (2002). Early intervention and the development of self-regulation. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 22(3), 307-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351692209348990

Ford, J. D. (1999). Organisational change as shifting conversations. Journal of Organisational Change Management, 12(6), 480-500. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534819910300855

Frankl, V. E. (1959). The spiritual dimension in existential analysis and logotherapy. Journal of Individual Psychology, 15(2), 157.

Freud, S. (1926). Psycho-analysis. Hogarth Press.

Freud, S. (1957). Revision of the theory of dreams. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 8). The Hogarth Press.

Frueh, B. C., Grubaugh, A. L., Yeager, D. E., & Magruder, K. E. (2009). Delayed-onset post-traumatic stress disorder among war veterans in primary care clinics. British Journal of Psychiatry, 194(6), 515–520. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.054700

Gabriel, R., & Neal, L. A. (2002). Post-traumatic stress disorder following military combat or peacekeeping. British Medical Journal, 324(7333), 340-341. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7333.340

Garland, C. (2018). Understanding trauma: A psychoanalytical approach. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429484575

Gear, S. (2002). Wishing us away: Challenges facing ex-combatants in the “new” South Africa. Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation.

Gibson, S., & Sullivan, C. (2012). Teaching qualitative research methods in psychology: An introduction to the special issue. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 11(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.2304/plat.2012.11.1.1

Goldspink, S., & Engward, H. (2019). Booming clangs and whispering ghosts: Attending to the reflexive echoes in IPA research. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 16(2), 291-304. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2018.1543111

Goldstein, J. S. (2003). War and gender. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29907-6_11

Graaff, K., & Heinecken, L. (2017). Masculinities and gender-based violence in South Africa: A study of a masculinities-focused intervention programme. Development Southern Africa, 34(5), 622-634. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2017.1334537

Grand, S., & Alpert, J. L. (1993). The core trauma of incest: An object relations view. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24(3), 330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.24.3.330

Grauer, R., & Quackenbush, S. L. (2021). Initiative and military effectiveness: Evidence from the Yom Kippur War. Journal of Global Security Studies, 6(2), ogaa018. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogaa018

Greenberg, N., Iversen, A., Hull, L., Bland, D., & Wessely, S. (2008). Getting a peace of the action: Measures of post-traumatic stress in UK military peacekeepers. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 101(2), 78-84. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2007.070024

Guntrip, H. (1995). Schizoid phenomena, object relations, and the self. Karnac Books.

Haley, S. A. (1993). I feel a little sad: The application of object relation theory to the hypnotherapy of post-traumatic stress disorders in Vietnam veterans. In S. L. Ablon, D. Brown, E. J. Khantzian, & J. E. Mack (Eds.), Human feelings: Explorations in affect development and meaning (pp. 241-258). The Analytic Press.

Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time. New York, NY. Harper.

Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 377-391. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050305

Herman, J. L. (1997). Trauma and recovery. Basic Books.

Herman, J. L., & Harvey, M. R. (1997). Adult memories of childhood trauma: A naturalistic clinical study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 557-571. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490100404

Hinshelwood, R. D. (1994). The relevance of psychotherapy. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 8(3), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/02668739400700271

Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 84(1), 116-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02016.x

Hoge, C. W. (2010). Once a warrior, always a warrior: Navigating the transition from combat to home. GPP Life.

Hogg, M. A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(3), 184-200. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_1

Holomisa, H. (1994). Challenges of demobilisation and integration of armed forces in a new South Africa. In Restructuring the Security Forces for a New South Africa: Papers from a Conference in Harare, Zimbabwe, 26-28 January 1994. Institute of International Education.

Honing, R. G., Grace, M. C., Lindy, J. D., Newman, C. J., & Titchener, J. L. (1999). Assessing long-term effects of trauma: Diagnosing symptoms of avoidance and numbing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 483-485. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.3.483

Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). Aronson.

Horrigan-Kelly, M., Miller, M., & Dowling, M. (2016). Understanding the key tenets of Heidegger’s philosophy for interpretive phenomenological research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 15(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406916680634

Horwitz, L. (1976). New perspectives for psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 40(3), 263.

Horwitz, L. (1983). Projective identification in dyads and groups. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 33(3), 259-279. https://doi. org/10. 4103/0972-6748. 328837

Iribarren, J., Prolo, P., Neagos, N., & Chiappelli, F. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence-based research for the third millennium. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2(4), 503-512. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/neh127

Irwin, R. M. (2012). Freedom’s other. Diplomatic History, 36(5), 793-796. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2012.01061.x

Iversen, A. C., & Greenberg, N. (2009). Mental health of regular and reserve military veterans. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(2), 100-106. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.004713

Jacobson, E. (1959). Depersonalisation. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 7, 581-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/000306515900700401

Kaiser, B. N., Haroz, E. E., Kohrt, B. A., Bolton, P. A., Bass, J. K., & Hinton, D. E. (2015). “Thinking too much”: A systematic review of a common idiom of distress. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.044

Kalsched, D. (2010). Working with trauma in analysis. In Jungian Psychoanalysis: Working in the Spirit of CG Jung (pp. 281-295). Open Court Publishing Company.

Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences clinical psychiatry (6th ed.). Williams & Wilkins.

Kardiner, A. (1959). Traumatic neuroses of war. In S. Arieti (Ed.), American Handbook of Psychiatry (pp. 245-257). Basic Books.

Kardiner, A., & Spiegel, H. (1947). War stress and neurotic illness. Paul B. Hober.

Kemp, G. (2019). Immunity of high-ranking officials before the International Criminal Court–Between international law and political reality. In The International Criminal Court in Turbulent Times (pp. 61-82). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-303-0_5

Kemp, G., & Nortje, W. (2023). Prosecuting the crime against humanity of apartheid: The historic first indictment in South Africa and the application of customary international law. Journal of International Criminal Justice, 21(2), 405-430. https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqad023

Kernberg, O. F. (2004). Borderline personality disorder and borderline personality organisation: Psychopathology and psychotherapy. In Handbook of personality disorders: Theory and Practice (pp. 92–119). John Wiley & Sons.

Khalil, L. (2018). Leading for peace leadership and its development in post-conflict contexts. In Handbook of personality disorders: Theory and practice (pp. 92-119).

Khalil, L. (2018). Leading for peace leadership and its development in post-conflict contexts. Open University UK.

Khan, P. (2021). South Africa: From apartheid to xenophobia. Race & Class, 63(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/03063968211020889

Kienzler, H. (2008). Debating war-trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in an interdisciplinary arena. Social Science & Medicine, 67(2), 218-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.030

Kira, I. A., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Ramaswamy, V., Ozkan, B., Mohanesh, J., & Hussam, A. (2012). Collective and personal annihilation anxiety: Measuring annihilation anxiety AA. Psychology, 3(01), 90. http://doi.org/10.4236/PSYCH.2012.31015

Klein, M. (1946a). Notes on some schizoid mechanisms. In Envy and gratitude and other works 1946-1963 (pp. 1-24). Delacourt.

Kleinman, A. (1997). “Everything that really matters”: Social suffering, subjectivity, and the remaking of human experience in a disordering world. Harvard Theological Review, 90(3), 315-336. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0017816000006374

Kleinman, A. (1997). Social suffering. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520353695

Kohrt, B. A., Rasmussen, A., Kaiser, B. N., Haroz, E. E., Maharjan, S. M., Mutamba, B. B., & Hinton, D. E. (2014). Cultural concepts of distress and psychiatric disorders: Literature review and research recommendations for global mental health epidemiology. International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(2), 365-406. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyt227

Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self. International Universities Press.

Kohut, H. (1972). Thoughts on narcissism and narcissistic rage. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 27(1), 360-400. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1972.11822721

Krupnik, V. (2020). Trauma or drama: A predictive processing perspective on the continuum of stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 1248. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01248

Krystal, H., & Niederland, W. G. (1968). Clinical observations on the survivor syndrome. In Massive psychic trauma (pp. 327-348).

Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., & Grady, D. A. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. Brunner/Mazel Publishers.

Laricchiuta, D., Garofalo, C., & Mazzeschi, C. (2023). Trauma-related disorders and the bodily self: Current perspectives and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1166127. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1166127

LeardMann, C. A., Smith, T. C., Smith, B., Wells, T. S., & Ryan, M. A. (2009). Baseline self-reported functional health and vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder after combat deployment: Prospective US military cohort study. British Medical Journal, 338. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b1273

Lénárd, K., & Tényi, T. (2003, January). Ferenczi’s concept on trauma, connected with the katonadolog—’Soldiers can take it’ concept. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 12(1), 22-29. https://doi.org/10.1080/08037060310005205

Lifton, R. J. (1973). Home from the war: Vietnam veterans: Neither victims nor executioners. Basic Books.

Lingaas, C. (2017). The crime against humanity of apartheid in a post-apartheid world. Oslo Law Review, 2(2), 86-115. https://doi.org/10.5617/oslaw2566

Lissoni, A. (2021). uMkhonto weSizwe (MK): The ANC’s armed wing, 1961–1993. In Oxford research encyclopedia of African history. Oxford Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1098

Luxenberg, T., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2001). Complex trauma and disorders of extreme stress (DESNOS) diagnosis, Part I: Assessment. Directions in Psychiatry, 21, 373-393.

Maercker, A., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Cloitre, M., van Ommeren, M., Jones, L. M., & Reed, G. M. (2013). Diagnosis and classification of disorders specifically associated with stress: Proposals for ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 12(3), 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20057

Magruder, K. M., & Yeager, D. E. (2009). The prevalence of PTSD across war eras and the effect of deployment on PTSD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatric Annals, 39(8). https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20090728-04

Maguen, S., Cohen, B., Ren, L., Bosch, J., Kimerling, R., & Seal, K. (2012). Gender differences in military sexual trauma and mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Women’s Health Issues, 22(1), e61-e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2011.07.010

Mahat-Shamir, M., Lavenda, O., Palgi, Y., Hamama-Raz, Y., Greenblatt-Kimron, L., Pitcho-Prelorentzos, S., & Ben-Ezra, M. (2019). Subjective traumatic outlook as a screening tool for psychological trauma: Cut-off values and diagnostic criteria. Psychiatry Research, 273, 121-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.014

Maroda, K. J. (1999). Creating an intersubjective context for self-disclosure. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 69(2), 474-489. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377319909517566

Marsella, A. J. (2010). Ethnocultural aspects of PTSD: An overview of concepts, issues, and treatments. Traumatology, 16(4), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610388062

Mashike, L. (1999). Beyond the armed struggle: A sociological profile of ex-MK soldiers. Group for Environmental Monitoring.

Mashike, L. (2005). Downsizing and right sizing: An analysis of the demobilisation process in the South African National Defence Force (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of the Witwatersrand.

Mashike, L., & Mokalobe, M. (2003). Reintegration into civilian life: The case of former MK and APLA combatants. Track Two: Constructive Approaches to Community and Political Conflict, 12(1), 9-38.

Massumi, B. (2015). Ontopower: War, powers, and the state of perception. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv120qqxv

Masvotore, P., & Tsara, L. (2019). South Africa’s road to democracy could have suffered a stillbirth had it not been for the unseen role played by women: Interfacing with the undercover operations of women. Alternation, 26. https://doi.org/10.29086/2519-5476/2019/sp26a5

Mbiti, J. S. (1990). African religions & philosophy. Heinemann.

McFarlane, A. C., & van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). Trauma and its challenge to society. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 24–46). The Guilford Press.

McMullin, J. R. (2013). Integration or separation? The stigmatisation of ex-combatants after war. Review of International Studies, 39(2), 385-414. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210512000228

Miller, K. E., Omidian, P., Kulkarni, M., Yaqubi, A., Daudzai, H., & Rasmussen, A. (2009). The validity and clinical utility of post-traumatic stress disorder in Afghanistan. Transcultural Psychiatry, 46(2), 219-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461509105813

Miller, L. (2016). Shots fired: Stresses and strategies in officer-involved shootings. In Stress in policing (pp. 115-134). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315611075-7

Mitchell, S. A. (1981). The origin and nature of the ‘object’ in the theories of Klein and Fairbairn. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 17, 374-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.1981.10745670

Mole, S. (2017). Nelson Mandela and the Commonwealth: A relationship in images. The Round Table, 106(6), 671-680. https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2017.1405640

Mtshayisa, V. E., & Letšosa, R. (2019). Practical guidelines to ameliorate the effects of internal and external deployments on the marriages of soldiers. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 75(4). https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v75i4.5641

Naidoo, S. (2007). Exploring the challenges facing former combatants in post-apartheid South Africa. (Unpublished master’s dissertation, University of Pretoria).

National Planning Commission. (2012). National development plan 2030: Our future - make it work. The Presidency, Republic of South Africa.

Ngubane, H. (1977). Body and mind in Zulu medicine: An ethnography of health and disease in Nyuswa-Zulu thought and practice (pp. xvi–184). Academic Press.

Nkomo, N. (2024). Walking with Bhekizizwe Peterson: The shadows and afterlives of exile. PINS: Psychology in Society, 66(1), 56-78. https://doi.org/10.57157/pins2024Vol66iss1a6575

O’Neil, S., & O’Neil, J. (2022). Sensemaking training in preparation for effective mission command in the African battlespace. Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, 50(2). https://doi.org/10.5787/50-2-1373

Ogden, T. H. (2004). An introduction to the reading of Bion. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 85(2), 285-300. https://doi.org/10.1516/3TPR-AXTL-0R8M-7EQ0

Opiyo, E. A., & Ovuga, E. (2014). Chapter 12: Peace building rituals in Acholi culture. In Conflict and peace studies in Africa: Peace and peace building: Enhancing human security (pp. 304-312). Routledge.

Osborn, M., & Smith, J. A. (2008). The fearfulness of chronic pain and the centrality of the therapeutic relationship in containing it: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 5(4), 276-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880701826143

Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52

Padi, T., Nduna, M., Khunou, G., & Kholopane, P. (2014). Defining absent, unknown, and undisclosed fathers in South Africa. South African Review of Sociology, 45(2), 44-59. https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2014.917879

Palmer, L., Norton, S., Rona, R. J., Fear, N. T., & Stevelink, S. A. (2023). The evolution of PTSD symptoms in serving and ex-serving personnel of the UK armed forces from 2004 to 2016: A longitudinal examination. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 157, 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.11.007

Palombo, J. (1991). The shattered self: A psychoanalytic study of trauma. Clinical Social Work Journal, 19(4), 427-433. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00757444

Parson, E. R. (1984). The reparation of the self: Clinical and theoretical dimensions in the treatment of Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 14(1), 4-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00956735

Patel, A. R., & Hall, B. J. (2021). Beyond the DSM-5 diagnoses: A cross-cultural approach to assessing trauma reactions. Focus, 19(2), 197-203. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20200049

Pedersen, D. (2002). Political violence, ethnic conflict, and contemporary wars: Broad implications for health and social well-being. Social Science & Medicine, 55(2), 175-190. Pitcher, S., Frankland, T., & Jones, N. (2022). From sick old man to mythical hero. Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, 35(1), 94-107. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v35i1.1604

Peterson, J. M. (2015). A psychodynamic exploration of the unconscious transmission of trauma as a result of politically-based violence (Doctoral dissertation, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology).

Potik, D. (2018). Kleinian conceptualisation of heroin addiction, Part 1: The paranoid-schizoid position. Clinical Social Work Journal, 46, 34-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-016-0609-y

Pringle, J., Drummond, J., McAfferty, E., & Hendry, C. (2011). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: A discussion and critique. Nurse Researcher, 18, 20-24. https://doi.org/10.7748/nr2011.04.18.3.20.c8459

Purcell, W. J. (1996). The attachment-trauma complex. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 56(4), 435-446. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02735493

Quinodoz, J. M. (1993). The taming of solitude: Separation anxiety in psychoanalysis (No. 20). Psychology Press.

Reich, J. H. (1990). Personality disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. In M. E. Wolf & A. D. Mosnaim (Eds.). Post traumatic stress disorder: Etiology, phenomenology, and treatment (pp. 64-79). American Psychiatric Press.

Reid, K., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2005). Exploring lived experience. The Psychologist, 18(1), 20-23.

Richardson, J. D., Contractor, A. A., Armour, C., Cyr, K. S., Elhai, J. D., & Sareen, J. (2014). Predictors of long-term treatment outcome in combat and peacekeeping veterans with military-related PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(11), 15086. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08796

Ritvo, S. (1984). The image and uses of the body in psychic conflict: With special reference to eating disorders in adolescence. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 39(1), 449-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1984.11823437

Rizeq, J., & McCann, D. (2023). The cognitive, emotional, and behavioural sequelae of trauma exposure: An integrative approach to examining trauma’s effect. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 15(2), 313. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001152

Rueedi, F. (2015). ‘Siyayinyova!’: Patterns of violence in the African townships of the Vaal Triangle, South Africa, 1980-1986. Africa, 85(3), 395-416. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0001972015000261

Rüland, J. (2014). The limits of democratizing interest representation: ASEAN’s regional corporatism and normative challenges. European Journal of International Relations, 20(1), 237-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066112445289

Said, E. W. (1979). Zionism from the standpoint of its victims. Social Text, (1), 7-58. https://doi.org/10.2307/466405

Schell, T. L., & Marshall, G. N. (2008). Survey of individuals previously deployed for OEF/OIF. In Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery (pp. 87-115). RAND Corporation.

Schilbach, M., Baethge, A., & Rigotti, T. (2024). How past work stressors influence psychological well-being in the face of current adversity: Affective reactivity to adversity as an explanatory mechanism. Journal of Business and Psychology, 39(4), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-023-09922-7

Schleiermacher, F. (1998). Schleiermacher: hermeneutics and criticism: and other writings. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814945

Shapiro, J. (2012). No place by the fire: The story of South African ex-combatants and the National Peace Accord Trust. Atlantic Philanthropies.

Shay, J. (1994). Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character. Simon & Schuster.

Shinebourne, P. (2011). The theoretical underpinnings of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 22(1).

Sibanda, S. (2020). An object relations perspective on accounts of traumatisation among a group of Black South African National Defence Force soldiers (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria).

Singh, J., Prakash, J., Yadav, P., Bharti, A., & Chatterjee, K. (2021). Complex psychological trauma. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 30(Suppl 1):S305-S307. http://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6748.328837.

SIRC. (2003). Annual Report 2000-2001-SIRC. Security Intelligence Review Committee.

Smith, J. A. (2004). Reflecting on the interpretative phenomenological analysis and its contribution to qualitative research in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 1, 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088704qp004oa

Smith, J. A. (2011). Evaluating the contribution of interpretative phenomenological analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(1), 9-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.510659

Smith, J. A. (2019). Participants and researchers searching for meaning: Conceptual developments for interpretative phenomenological analysis. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 16(2), 166-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2018.1540648

Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research. Sage.

Solomon, C. (2023). I have PTSD: Reorienting after trauma. New Growth Press.

Solomon, P. R., Carangelo, R. M., & Horn, E. (1986). The effects of pyrolysis conditions on Israeli oil shale properties. Fuel, 65(5), 650-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(86)90360-1

Solomon, R. M., & Horn, J. M. (1986). Post-shooting traumatic reactions: A pilot study. In J. Reese & H. Goldstein (Eds.), Psychological services for law enforcement (pp. 383-393). Government of South Africa Department of Defence.

Souza, W. F., Figueira, I., Mendlowicz, M. V., Volchan, E., Portella, C. M., Mendonça-de-Souza, A. C. F., & Coutinho, E. S. F. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder in peacekeepers: A meta-analysis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199(5), 309-312. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3182175180

Sow, A. I. (1980). Anthropological structures of madness in Black Africa. International Universities Press.

Sreechinth, C. (2018). Musings of Carl Jung. UB Tech.

St Clair, M., & Wigren, J. (2000). Object relations and self psychology: An introduction (3rd ed.). Wadsworth.

Steinberg, J. (2011). Crime goes abroad: Policy transfer and policing in post-apartheid South Africa. Theoretical Criminology, 15(4), 349-364. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480611406168

Stiff, P. (2001). Warfare by other means: South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s. Gallago.

Stott, N. (2000). From the SADF to the SANDF: Military violence in transition: A select list of incidents involving the military. Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation.

Stott, N. (2002). From the SADF to the SANDF: Safeguarding South Africa for a better life for all. Violence and Transition Series, 7, 1-88. Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation.

Summerfield, D. (2001). The invention of posttraumatic stress disorder and the usefulness of a psychiatric category. British Medical Journal, 322, 95-98. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.322.7278.95

Summerfield, D. (2005). “My whole body is sick… my life is not good”: A Rwandan asylum seeker attends a psychiatric clinic in London. In Forced migration and mental health: Rethinking the care of refugees and displaced persons (pp. 97-114). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-22693-1_6

Summerfield, D. (2000). War and mental health: A brief overview. British Medical Journal, 321(7255), 232-235. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7255.232

Summers, F. (2024). Object relations theories and psychopathology: A comprehensive text. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003265795

Swartz, S. (2009). Heinz Kohut: Self psychology. In J. Watts, K. Cockcroft, & N. Duncan (Eds.), Developmental psychology (2nd ed.). UCT Press.

Tal, K. (1996). Worlds of hurt: Reading the literatures of trauma (No. 95). Cambridge University.

Tanielian, T. L., & Jaycot, L. H. (2008). PTSD in the military: Special considerations for understanding prevalence, pathophysiology, and treatment following deployment. In R. Yehuda, E. Vermetten, A. C. McFarlane, & A. Lehrner (2014). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(10). https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25322

Taylor, D. (1998). The psychodynamic assessment of post-traumatic states. In C. Garland (Ed.), Understanding trauma: A psychoanalytic approach. Duckworth.

Thomas, K. (2021). Bitter emotion: Affective archives and transnational solidarity against apartheid. Interventions, 23(1), 42-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801X.2020.1813616

Tisani, N. (2018). Of definitions and naming: “I am the earth itself. God made me a chief on the very first day of creation“. In Whose history counts (pp. 15-34). African Sun Media.

Tol, W. A., Barbui, C., Bisson, J., Cohen, J., Hijazi, Z., Jones, L., & Van Ommeren, M. (2014). World Health Organization guidelines for management of acute stress, PTSD, and bereavement: Key challenges on the road ahead. PLoS Medicine, 11(12), e1001769. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001769

Tull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007). A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 303-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.001

Ulman, R. B., & Brothers, D. (1988). The shattered self: A psychoanalytic study of trauma. The Analytic Press.

Van der Kolk, B. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 2(1), 7-22. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/bvdkolk

Van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). The drug treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 13(2), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0327(87)90024-3

Van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). The complexity of adaptation to trauma: Self-regulation, stimulus discrimination, and characterological development. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 182-213). The Guilford Press.

Van der Kolk, B. A., & McFarlane, A. C. (1996). The black hole of trauma (pp. 3-23). The Guilford Press.

Van der Merwe, A., & Swartz, L. (2015). Living in two narratives: Psychic splitting in South African survivors of chronic trauma. South African Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 361-373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246315574826

Van Manen, M. (2017). Phenomenology in its original sense. Qualitative Health Research, 27(6), 810-825. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732317699381

Vermote, R. (2011). On the value of ‘late Bion’ to analytic theory and practice. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 92(5), 1089-1098. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-8315.2011.00500.x

Vidmar, N. (2001). Retribution and revenge. In Handbook of justice research in law (pp. 31-63). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47379-8_2

Visagie, N., Du Toit, R. A., Joubert, S., Schoeman, D., & Zungu, D. (2022). Comparing deployment experiences of South African National Defence Force personnel during peace support missions: Sudan vs Democratic Republic of Congo. Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies, 50(2), 127-154. https://doi.org/10.5787/50-2-1375

Watters, E. (2010, 8 January). The Americanisation of mental illness. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/magazine/10psyche-t.html

Weinberg, M., & Gill, S. (2016). Trauma as an objective or subjective experience: The association between types of traumatic events, personality traits, subjective experience of the event, and posttraumatic symptoms. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 21(2), 137-146. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2015.1011986

Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., & Kulka, R. A. (1992). The prevalence of lifetime and partial post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam theater veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 365-376. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490050304

Wessels, A. (2010). The South African National Defence Force, 1994-2009: A historical perspective. Journal for Contemporary History, 35(2), 131-152.

Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology. McGraw-Hill Education.

Winer, J. A., & Anderson, J. W. (Eds.). (2003). Psychoanalysis and history (Vol. 31). Routledge.

Winnicott, D. W. (1974). Fear of breakdown. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 1, 103-107. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1745-8315

Winnicott, D. W. (1991). Playing and reality. Psychology Press.

Winnicott, D. W. (2016). The location of cultural experience. In The collected works of D. W. Winnicott (pp. 429-436). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780190271398.003.0075

Winnicott, D. W. (2018). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429482410

Winnicott, W. D. (1965). The maturational process and the facilitating environment. In The theory of the parent–infant relationship, (pp. 37-55). International Universities Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429482410-3

Wolff, J. (1995). Political obligation, fairness, and independence. Ratio, 8(1), 87-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9329.1995.tb00071.x

World Bank. (2022). Overcoming poverty and inequality in South Africa: An assessment of drivers, constraints and opportunities. World Bank.

Wright, C. (2021). Lacan on trauma and causality: A psychoanalytic critique of post-traumatic stress/growth. Journal of Medical Humanities, 42(2), 235-244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10912-020-09622-w

Xue, C., Ge, Y., Tang, B., Liu, Y., Kang, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, L. (2015). A meta-analysis of risk factors for combat-related PTSD among military personnel and veterans. PloS One, 10(3), e0120270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120270

Yardley, L. (2000). Dilemmas in qualitative health research. Psychology and Health, 15(2), 215-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440008400302

Yardley, L. (2008). Demonstrating validity in qualitative psychology. Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Guide to Research Methods, 2, 235-251.

Yarvis, J. S., & Schiess, L. (2008). Subthreshold posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a predictor of depression, alcohol use, and health problems in veterans. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 23(4), 395-424. https://doi.org/10.1080/15555240802547801

Ye, J., Guo, J., & Jiang, X. (2017). Executive function in cancer patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 52(2), 137-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091217417720898

Yehuda, R., Vermetten, E., McFarlane, A. C., & Lehrner, A. (2014). PTSD in the military: Special considerations for understanding prevalence, pathophysiology, and treatment following deployment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), 25322. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25322

Young, A. (1995). The harmony of illusions: Inventing post-traumatic stress disorder. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821938

Zarowsky, C. (2004). Writing trauma: Emotion, ethnography, and the politics of suffering among Somali returnees in Ethiopia. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28, 189-209. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MEDI.0000034410.08428.29

Zepinic, V. (2016). Disintegration of the self-structure caused by severe trauma. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 5(4), 83-92. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20160504.12