Nostalgia after Apartheid: Disillusionment, Youth, and Democracy in South Africa
Winner of the AAA/SfAA Margaret Mead Award
In this engaging book, Amber Reed provides a new perspective on South Africa’s democracy by exploring Black residents’ nostalgia for life during apartheid in the rural Eastern Cape. Reed looks at a surprising phenomenon encountered in the post-apartheid nation: despite the Department of Education mandating curricula meant to teach values of civic responsibility and liberal democracy, those who are actually responsible for teaching this material (and the students taking it) often resist what they see as the imposition of “white” values. These teachers and students do not see South African democracy as a type of freedom, but rather as destructive of their own “African culture”—whereas apartheid, at least ostensibly, allowed for cultural expression in the former rural homelands. In the Eastern Cape, Reed observes, resistance to democracy occurs alongside nostalgia for apartheid among the very citizens who were most disenfranchised by the late racist, authoritarian regime. Examining a rural town in the former Transkei homeland and the urban offices of the Sonke Gender Justice Network in Cape Town, Reed argues that nostalgic memories of a time when African culture was not under attack, combined with the socioeconomic failures of the post-apartheid state, set the stage for the current political ambivalence in South Africa. Beyond simply being a case study, however, Nostalgia after Apartheid shows how, in a global context in which nationalism and authoritarianism continue to rise, the threat posed to democracy in South Africa has far wider implications for thinking about enactments of democracy.
Nostalgia after Apartheid offers a unique approach to understanding how the attempted post-apartheid reforms have failed rural Black South Africans, and how this failure has led to a nostalgia for the very conditions that once oppressed them. It will interest scholars of African studies, postcolonial studies, anthropology, and education, as well as general readers interested in South African history and politics.
Product details
Chapters
-
Introduction
-
Being Xhosa, Being South African
-
The NGO as Moral Compass?
-
“Thinking Outside the Box”Sonke in Kamva
-
Life Orientation as Democratic Project
-
Teaching Nostalgia
-
Freedom from Democracy?
References
Abdi, Ali A. 2002. Culture, Education, and Development in South Africa: His- torical and Contemporary Perspectives. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
Abu El-Haj, Nadia. 2001. Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Ter- ritorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Abu-Lughod, Lila. 2002. “Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthro- pological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others.” American Anthropologist 104 (3): 783–90.
Alves, Isabbel, Margarida Coelho, Christopher Gignoux, Albertino Dama- sceno, Antonio Prista, and Jorge Rocha. 2011. “Genetic Homogeneity Across Bantu-Speaking Groups from Mozambique and Angola Chal- lenges Early Split Scenarios between East and West Bantu Populations.” Human Biology 83 (1): 13–38.
Angé, Olivia, and David Berliner, eds. 2014. Anthropology and Nostalgia. New York: Berghahn Books.
Apter, Andrew. 1999. “Nigerian Democracy and the Politics of Illusion.” In Civil Society and the Political Imagination: Critical Perspectives, edited by John L. and Jean Comaroff, 267–308. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ashforth, Adam. 2005. Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Austin-Broos, Diane. 2003. “The Anthropology of Conversion: An Introduc- tion.” In The Anthropology of Religious Conversion, edited by Andrew Buck- ser and Stephen D. Glazier, 1–14. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Bank, Leslie J. 2011. Home Spaces, Street Styles: Contesting Power and Identity in a South African City. London: Pluto Press.
———. 2016. “Engaging Mafeje’s Ghost: Fort Hare and the Virtues of ‘Homeland’ Anthropology.” African Studies 75 (2): 278–95.
Baquedano-Lopez, Patricia. 1997. “Creating Social Identities through ‘Doc- trina’ Narratives.” Issues in Applied Linguistics 8 (1): 27–45.
Basso, Keith H. 1996. Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Bayart, Jean-François. 1989. L’État en Afrique: La politique du ventre. Paris: Fayard.
Beaubien, Jason. 2018. “The Country with the World’s Worst Inequality Is . . .”
Goats and Soda: Stories of Life in a Changing World (blog). April 2. www
.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/04/02/598864666/the-country
-with-the-worlds-worst-inequality-is.
Beer, K. J. de. 1991. A Pocket Guide to Black Political Groupings in South Africa.
Clubview, South Africa: K. J. de Beer.
Beinart, William. 1981. “Conflict in Qumbu: Rural Consciousness, Ethnicity and Violence in the Colonial Transkei, 1880–1913.” Journal of Southern African Studies 8 (1): 94–122.
———. 1994. Twentieth-Century South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Beinart, William, and Colin Bundy. 1987. Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa: Politics and Popular Movements in the Transkei and Eastern Cape,
–1930. London: J. Currey.
Bell, Kirsten. 2015. “HIV Prevention: Making Male Circumcision the ‘Right’ Tool for the Job.” Global Public Health 10 (5–6): 552–72.
Bennett, Tony. 2015. “Cultural Studies and the Culture Concept.” Cultural Studies 29 (4): 546–68.
Besteman, Catherine Lowe. 2008. Transforming Cape Town. Berkeley: Univer- sity of California Press.
Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.
Bissell, William Cunningham. 2005. “Engaging Colonial Nostalgia.” Cul- tural Anthropology: Journal of the Society for Cultural Anthropology 20 (2): 215–48.
Bond, Patrick. 2014. Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa. London: Pluto Press.
Boonzaier, Emile, and John Sharp, eds. 1988. South African Keywords: The Uses and Abuses of Political Concepts. Cape Town: David Philip Publishers.
Bornstein, Erica. 2001. “Child Sponsorship, Evangelism, and Belonging in the Work of World Vision Zimbabwe.” American Ethnologist 28 (3): 595–622.
Bornstein, Erica, and Peter Redfield, eds. 2011. Forces of Compassion: Humani- tarianism between Ethics and Politics. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Botha, R. J. (Nico). 2002. “Outcomes-Based Education and Educational Re- form in South Africa.” International Journal of Leadership in Education 5
(4): 361–71.
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourgois, Philippe. 1995. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Boym, Svetlana. 2001. The Future of Nostalgia. New York: Basic Books. Breakfast, Siviwe. 2018. “Education Sector Records Highest Number of Cor-
ruption Complaints.” South African, August 7. www.thesouthafrican.com
/most-corrupt-government-sectors-in-sa/.
Brown, Roderick. 2012. “Corrective Rape in South Africa: A Continuing Plight Despite an International Human Rights Response.” Annual Sur- vey of International & Comparative Law 18: 45–66.
Brown, Wendy. 1998. “Democracy’s Lack.” Public Culture 10 (2): 425–29.
Bucholtz, Mary. 1999. “ ‘Why Be Normal?’: Language and Identity Practices in a Community of Nerd Girls.” Language in Society 28 (2): 203–24.
———. 2002. “Youth and Cultural Practice.” Annual Review of Anthropology
(1): 525–52.
Buckser, Andrew, and Stephen D. Glazier, eds. 2003. The Anthropology of Reli- gious Conversion. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Chalfin, Brenda. 2010. Neoliberal Frontiers: An Ethnography of Sovereignty in West Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chance, Kerry Ryan. 2018. Living Politics in South Africa’s Urban Shacklands.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cheney, Kristen E. 2007. Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan Na- tional Development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chipkin, Ivor. 2007. Do South Africans Exist? Nationalism, Democracy, and the Identity of “The People.” Johannesburg: Wits University Press.
Chisholm, Linda. 2005. “The Making of South Africa’s National Curriculum Statement.” Journal of Curriculum Studies 37 (2): 193–208.
Christoffersen-Deb, Astrid. 2005. “Taming Tradition: Medicalized Female Genital Practices in Western Kenya.” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 19
(4): 402–18.
Clark, Nancy L., and William H. Worger. 2004. South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman.
Clarke, Kamari M., and Deborah A. Thomas, eds. 2006. Globalization and Race: Transformations in the Cultural Production of Blackness. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Cobban, Donna. 2010. “Making Sense of Curriculum Changes.” Child Maga- zine. www.childmag.co.za/content/making-sense-curriculum-changes.
Cole, Jennifer. 1998. “The Work of Memory in Madagascar.” American Eth- nologist 25 (4): 610–33.
Cole, Jennifer, and Deborah Lynn Durham. 2008. Figuring the Future: Globali- zation and the Temporalities of Children and Youth. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Comaroff, Jean, and John L. Comaroff. 2000. “Millennial Capitalism: First Thoughts on a Second Coming.” Public Culture 12 (2): 291–343.
Comaroff, John L., and Jean Comaroff. 1990. “Goodly Beasts, Beastly Goods: Cattle and Commodities in a South African Context.” American Ethnolo- gist 17 (2): 195–216.
———. 1997. “Postcolonial Politics and Discourses of Democracy in South- ern Africa: An Anthropological Reflection on African Political Moderni- ties.” Journal of Anthropological Research 53 (4): 123–46.
———. 1999. Civil Society and the Political Imagination in Africa: Critical Per- spectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 2001. Millennial Capitalism and the Culture of Neoliberalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
———. 2004a. “Criminal Justice, Cultural Justice: The Limits of Liberalism and the Pragmatics of Difference in the New South Africa.” American Ethnologist 31 (2): 188–204.
———. 2004b. “Policing Culture, Cultural Policing: Law and Social Order in Postcolonial South Africa.” Law & Social Inquiry: Journal of the American Bar Foundation 29 (3): 513.
———. 2009. Ethnicity, Inc. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———, eds. 2018. The Politics of Custom: Chiefship, Capital, and the State in Contemporary Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cowell, Alan. 2018. “Seminude School Performance Sparks Debate about Tradition in South Africa.” New York Times, June 2.
Crais, Clifton. 1998. “Of Men, Magic, and the Law: Popular Justice and the Political Imagination in South Africa.” Journal of Social History 32 (1): 49–72.
Crais, Clifton, and Thomas V. McClendon, eds. 2014. The South Africa Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Curnow, Robyn. 2013. “Selling Mandela: From T-Shirts to TV Shows, How Madiba Became a Brand.” CNN. www.cnn.com/2013/08/01/business
/selling-mandela-from-t-shirts-tv/.
Davis, D. M. 2003. “Constitutional Borrowing: The Influence of Legal Culture and Local History in the Reconstitution of Comparative Influence: The South African Experience.” International Journal of Constitutional Law 1
(2): 181–95.
Davis, Fred. 1979. Yearning for Yesterday: A Sociology of Nostalgia. New York: Free Press.
Davis, Richard Hunt, Jr. 1969. “Nineteenth-Century African Education in the Cape Colony: A Historical Analysis.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin.
Diale, Boitumelo, Jace Pillay, and Elzette Fritz. 2014. “Dynamics in the Per- sonal and Professional Development of Life-Orientation Teachers in South Africa, Gauteng Province.” Journal of Social Sciences 38 (1): 83–93. Dixon, Robyn, and Kylé Pienaar. 2010. “Boys Hoping to Gain Their Manhood
Lose It—Forever.” Los Angeles Times, August 23.
Dlamini, Jacob. 2009. Native Nostalgia. Auckland Park, South Africa: Jacana Media.
Dubbeld, Bernard. 2013. “Envisioning Governance: Expectations and Es- trangements of Transformed Rule in Glendale, South Africa.” Africa 83
(3): 492–512.
Dube, Saurabh, ed. 2009. Enchantments of Modernity: Empire, Nation, Globali- zation. Critical Asian Studies. London: Routledge.
Edelman, Marc, and Angelique Haugerud. 2005. The Anthropology of Develop- ment and Globalization: From Classical Political Economy to Contemporary Neoliberalism. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
“Electoral Commission: 2014 National and Provincial Elections: National Re- sults.” 2019. www.elections.org.za/content/elections/results/2014-national
-and-provincial-elections-national-results/.
Englund, Harri. 2006. Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights and the African Poor.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Erlank, Natasha. 2003. “Gendering Commonality: African Men and the 1883 Commission on Native Law and Custom.” Journal of Southern African Studies 29 (4): 937–53.
Evans, Martha. 2014. Broadcasting the End of Apartheid: Live Television and the Birth of the New South Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Evans, Sarah. 2014. “Nkandla Report: Zuma Unduly Benefitted from Up- grades.” Mail & Guardian, March 19. https://mg.co.za/article/2014-03
-19-nkandla-report-zuma-unduly-benefitted-from-upgrades.
Fanon, Frantz. 1968. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press. Feinberg, Joel. 1980. “The Child’s Right to an Open Future.” In Whose Child?
Children’s Rights, Parental Authority, and State Power, edited by William Aiken and Hugh LaFollette, 76–97. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Little- field. Reprinted in Joel Feinberg, Freedom and Fulfillment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Ferguson, James. 2006. Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order.
Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
———. 2010. “The Uses of Neoliberalism.” Antipode 41 (Suppl.): 166–84.
———. 2015. Give a Man a Fish: Reflections on the New Politics of Distribution.
Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Ferguson, James, and Akhil Gupta. 2002. “Spatializing States: Toward an Eth- nography of Neoliberal Governmentality.” American Ethnologist 29 (4): 981–1002.
Fisher, William F. 1997. “Doing Good? The Politics and Antipolitics of NGO Practices.” Annual Review of Anthropology, no. 26: 439–64.
Fournier, Anna. 2012. Forging Rights in a New Democracy: Ukrainian Students between Freedom and Justice. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Freire, Paulo. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. New York:
Basic Books.
Genetski, Honor, and Dean Peacock. 2006. “Sonke Gender Justice Network’s Fatherhood and Child Security Project: PhotoVoice to Empower Chil- dren and Educate Men about Gender and HIV and AIDS in Nkandla, Kwa-Zulu Natal, and Mhlontlo, Eastern Cape.” https://genderjustice.org
.za/publication/photovoice-to-empower-children-and-educate-men-in
-two-rural-communities/.
Gennep, Arnold van. 1960. The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press.
Geschiere, Peter, and Stephen Jackson. 2006. “Autochthony and the Crisis of Citizenship: Democratization, Decentralization, and the Politics of Be- longing.” African Studies Review 49 (2): 1–7.
Gibbs, Timothy. 2011. “Chris Hani’s ‘Country Bumpkins’: Regional Networks in the African National Congress Underground, 1974–1994.” Journal of Southern African Studies 37 (4): 677–91.
Gilroy, Paul. 2005. Postcolonial Melancholia. New York: Columbia University Press.
Goldman, Michael. 2005. “Tracing the Roots / Routes of World Bank Power.”
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 25 (1–2): 10–29.
Goode, Judith, and Jeff Maskovsky. 2001. New Poverty Studies: The Ethnog- raphy of Power, Politics, and Impoverished People in the United States. New York: New York University Press.
Government of South Africa. 2016, 2019. The South African Constitution. www.justice.gov.za/legislation/constitution/resources.html.
———. 2018. “Public Holidays in South Africa.” www.gov.za/about-sa/public
-holidays.
Grant, Laura. 2014. “Live Elections 2014 Results.” Mail & Guardian, May 7. Guffin, Bascom, Jesse Davie-Kessler, and Richard McGrail. 2010. “Affect, Embodiment and Sense Perception: Editorial Introduction.” Cultural
Anthropology. https://journal.culanth.org/index.php/ca/catalog/category
/affect-embodiment-and-sense.
Gwata, Feri. 2009. Traditional Male Circumcision: What Is Its Socio-Cultural Significance among Young Xhosa Men? Rondebosch: Centre for Social Sci- ence Research.
Hale, Sondra. 2013. “The Memory Work of Anthropologists: Notes toward a Gendered Politics of Memory in Conflict Zones—Sudan and Eritrea.” In Anthropology of the Middle East and North Africa: Into the New Millennium, edited by Sherine Hafez and Susan Slyomovics, 125–44. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Hall, Kathleen. 2002. Lives in Translation: Sikh Youth as British Citizens. Phila- delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hammond-Tooke, W. D. 1985. “Descent Groups, Chiefdoms and South Afri- can Historiography.” Journal of Southern African Studies 11 (2): 305–19.
Hanks, William F. 2010. Converting Words: Maya in the Age of the Cross. Berke- ley: University of California Press.
Hansen, Holger Bernt, and Michael Twaddle, eds. 2002. Christian Missionar- ies and the State in the Third World. Oxford and Athens: James Currey and Ohio University Press.
Harber, Clive. 2001. State of Transition: Post-Apartheid Educational Reform in South Africa. Monographs in International Education. Oxford: Sympo- sium Books.
Harding, Susan F. 1987. “Convicted by the Holy Spirit: The Rhetoric of Fun- damental Baptist Conversion.” American Ethnologist 14 (1): 167–81.
Harley, Ken, Fred Barasa, Carol Bertram, Elizabeth Mattson, and Shervani Pillay. 2000. “ ‘The Real and the Ideal’: Teacher Roles and Competences in South African Policy and Practice.” International Journal of Educational Development 20: 287–304.
Healy-Clancy, Meghan. 2014. A World of Their Own: A History of South Afri- can Women’s Education. Reconsiderations in Southern African History. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Hebdige, Dick. 1979. Subculture, the Meaning of Style. London: Methuen. Herskovitz, Jon. 2013. “Deep Read: ‘Born Free’ Voters May Not Choose
ANC.” Mail & Guardian, January 29.
Hickel, Jason. 2014. “ ‘Xenophobia’ in South Africa: Order, Chaos and the Moral Economy of Witchcraft.” Cultural Anthropology 29 (1): 103–27.
———. 2015. Democracy as Death: The Moral Order of Anti-Liberal Politics in South Africa. Oakland: University of California Press.
Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger. 1983. The Invention of Tradition. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hues, Henning. 2011. “ ‘Mandela, the Terrorist’: Intended and Hidden His- tory Curriculum in South Africa.” Journal of Educational Media, Memory & Society 3 (2): 74–95.
Hunter, Monica. 1936. Reaction to Conquest: Effects of Contact with Europeans on the Pondo of South Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
Jeske, Christine. 2016. “Are Cars the New Cows? Changing Wealth Goods and Moral Economies in South Africa.” American Anthropologist 118 (3): 483–94.
Jones, Michelle. 2013. “Education 101.” Child Magazine. www.childmag.co.za
/content/education.
Klumbyte, Neringa. 2009. “Post-Socialist Sensations: Nostalgia, the Self, and Alterity in Lithuania.” Lithuanian Ethnology 9 (18): 93–116.
Knight, J. B., and G. Lenta. 1980. “Has Capitalism Underdeveloped the La- bour Reserves of South Africa?” Oxford Bulletin of Economics & Statistics 42 (3): 157–201.
Korbin, Jill E. 2003. “Children, Childhoods, and Violence.” Annual Review of Anthropology 32: 431.
Krabill, Ron. 2010. Starring Mandela and Cosby: Media and the End(s) of Apart- heid. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Laidlaw, James. 2002. “For an Anthropology of Ethics and Freedom.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 8 (2): 311–32.
Laing, Aislinn. 2010. “South African Adverts Threaten Men with Prison Rape If Caught Drink Driving.” December 21, sec. World. www.telegraph.co
.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/8216970/South
-African-adverts-threaten-men-with-prison-rape-if-caught-drink-driving
.html.
———. 2012. “Jacob Zuma ‘The Spear’ Painting Defaced Ahead of Court Ac- tion.” Telegraph, May 22.
Lancy, David F. 2008. The Anthropology of Childhood: Cherubs, Chattel, Change- lings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lehohla, Pali. 2011. Census 2011. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
Lester, Alan. 1997. “The Margins of Order: Strategies of Segregation on the Eastern Cape Frontier, 1806–c. 1850.” Journal of Southern African Stud- ies 23 (4): 635–53.
Locke, John. [1689] 1960. The Second Treatise of Government. In John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, edited by Peter Laslett, 283–446. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
MacDonald, Michael. 2004. “The Political Economy of Identity Politics.”
South Atlantic Quarterly 103 (4): 629–56.
Mahmood, Saba. 2005. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Makhulu, Anne-Maria. 2015. Making Freedom: Apartheid, Squatter Politics, and the Struggle for Home. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
———. 2016. “Reckoning with Apartheid: The Conundrum of Working through the Past.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 36 (2): 256–62.
Makinana, Andisiwe. 2014. “Tutu Calls on South Africans to Vote with Their Heads.” Mail & Guardian, April 23.
Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
———. 2001. When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Manase, Irikidzayi. 2016. “Black Diamonds and Excess in the Fictional and Lived South African City of the Early 2000s.” English Academy Review 33 (1): 87–96.
Mandela, Nelson. 2007. “An Ideal for Which I Am Prepared to Die.” The Guardian, April 23. www.theguardian.com/world/2007/apr/23/nelson mandela.
Marais, Hein. 2011. South Africa Pushed to the Limit: The Political Economy of Change. London: Zed Books.
Markowitz, L. 2001.“Finding the Field: Notes on the Ethnography of NGOs.”
Human Organization 60: 40–46.
Mavundla, Thandisizwe, Fulufhelo Netswera, Ferenc Toth, Brian Bottoman, and Stembele Tenge. 2010. “How Boys Become Dogs: Stigmatization and Marginalization of Uninitiated Xhosa Males in East London, South Africa.” Qualitative Health Research 20 (7): 931–41.
Mayer, Philip, and Iona Mayer. 1970. “Socialization by Peers: The Youth Orga- nization of the Red Xhosa.” In Socialization, edited by Philip Mayer, 159–
London: Routledge.
Mazzarella, William. 2009. “Affect: What Is It Good For?” In Enchantments of Modernity: Empire, Nation, Globalization, edited by Saurabh Dube. Lon- don: Routledge.
Mbembé, J. A. 2001. On the Postcolony. Berkeley: University of California Press. McAllister, P. A. 1989. “Resistance to ‘Betterment’ in the Transkei.” Journal of
Southern African Studies 15 (2): 346–68.
Meintjes, Graeme. 1998. Manhood at a Price: Socio-Medical Perspectives on Xhosa Traditional Circumcision. Grahamstown, South Africa: Institute of Social and Economic Research, Rhodes University.
Mills, Wallace G. 1992. “Missionaries, Xhosa Clergy, and the Suppression of Traditional Customs.” Paper presented at the conference People, Power and Culture: The History of Christianity in South Africa 1792–1992, University of the Western Cape, August 12–15.
Motala, Enver, Mondli Hlatshwayo, Salim Vally, and Siphelo Ngcwangu. 2019. “South African Students Are Protesting—Again. Why It Needn’t Be This Way.” The Conversation. February 8. http://theconversation.com
/south-african-students-are-protesting-again-why-it-neednt-be-this
-way-109964.
Mtuze, P. T. 2004. Introduction to Xhosa Culture. Alice, South Africa: Love- dale Press.
Mudimbe, V.Y. 1988. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Mufson, Steven, and Sudarsan Raghavan. 2014. “After Mandela’s Death, ANC Faces Growing Risk of Losing Power in South Africa.” Washing- ton Post, January 2. www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/after
-mandelas-death-anc-faces-growing-risk-of-losing-power-in-south
-africa/2014/01/01.
Myers, Fred R. 2002. Painting Culture: The Making of an Aboriginal High Art.
Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Nel, Etienne, Tony Binns, and Nicole Motteux. 2001. “Community-Based De- velopment, Non-Governmental Organizations and Social Capital in Post- Apartheid South Africa.” Geografiska Annaler, Series B: Human Geography 83 (1): 3–13.
Ngwane, Zolani. 2001. “ ‘Real Men Reawaken Their Fathers’ Homesteads, the Educated Leave Them in Ruins’: The Politics of Domestic Reproduction in Post-Apartheid Rural South Africa.” Journal of Religion in Africa 31
(4): 402–26.
Niekerk, Philip van. 1987. “Winds of Change in Transkei as Matanzima Brothers Exit.” Globe & Mail, November.
Nkomo, Mokubung, ed. 1990. Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
Nyamnjoh, Francis B. 2002. “‘A Child Is One Person’s Only in the Womb’: Domestication, Agency and Subjectivity in the Cameroonian Grassfields.” In Postcolonial Subjectivities in Africa, edited by Richard Werbner, 111–38. New York: Zed Books.
Nyerere, Julius K. 1968. Freedom and Socialism. Uhuru Na Ujamaa: A Selec- tion from Writings and Speeches, 1965–1967. London: Oxford Univer- sity Press.
Onishi, Norimitsu. 2014. “In South Africa, A.N.C. Is Counting on the Past.”
New York Times, May 5.
Onishi, Norimitsu, and Selam Gebrekidan. 2018. “South Africa Vows to End Corruption. Are Its New Leaders Part of the Problem?” New York Times, August 4. www.nytimes.com/2018/08/04/world/africa/south-africa-anc
-david-mabuza.html.
Ortner, Sherry B. 1984. “Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties.” Compara- tive Studies in Society and History 26 (1): 126–66.
———. 2006. Anthropology and Social Theory: Culture, Power, and the Acting Subject. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Owusu, Maxwell. 1997. “Domesticating Democracy: Culture, Civil Society, and Constitutionalism in Africa.” Comparative Studies in Society and His- tory 39 (1): 120–52.
Paley, Julia. 2002. “Toward an Anthropology of Democracy.” Annual Review of Anthropology 31 ( January): 469–96.
———. 2008. Democracy: Anthropological Approaches. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Paret, Marcel. 2018. “Critical Nostalgias in Democratic South Africa.” Socio- logical Quarterly 59 (4): 678–96.
Pearce, Fred. 2017. “Murder in Pondoland: How a Proposed Mine Brought Conflict to South Africa.” The Guardian, March 28, sec. Environment. www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/mar/27/murder-pondoland
-how-proposed-mine-brought-conflict-south-africa-activist-sikhosiphi
-rhadebe.
Peires, J. B. 1989. The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle- Killing Movement of 1856–7. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
———. 2003. The House of Phalo: A History of the Xhosa People in the Days of Their Independence. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball.
Pells, E. G. 1938. European, Coloured and Native Education in South Africa.
Cape Town: Juta & Co.
Phillips, Laura. 2018. “The Peculiar Nostalgia for the Former Bantustans in South Africa.” March 27. https://africasacountry.com/2018/03/the
-peculiar-nostalgia-for-the-former-bantustans-in-south-africa.
Pierre, Jemima. 2013. The Predicament of Blackness: Postcolonial Ghana and the Politics of Race. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Piot, Charles. 1999. Remotely Global: Village Modernity in West Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 2010. Nostalgia for the Future: West Africa after the Cold War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Posel, Deborah. 1991. The Making of Apartheid, 1948–1961: Conflict and Com- promise. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———. 2013. “The ANC Youth League and the Politicization of Race.” Thesis Eleven 115 (1): 58–76.
Prinsloo, Erna. 2007. “Implementation of Life Orientation Programmes in the New Curriculum in South African Schools: Perceptions of Princi- pals and Life Orientation Teachers.” South African Journal of Education 27 (1): 155–70.
Quintal, Genevieve. 2016. “Matric Results 2015: Pass Rate Drops to 70.7%.”
Mail & Guardian, January 5. www.mg.co.za/article/2016-01-05-matric
-pass-rate-drops-to-707.
Rawls, John. 1996. Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Reed, Amber R. 2011. “Creating New Leaders: Youth Involvement in Com- munity Activism in South Africa.” Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
(1). Online.
———. 2016. “Nostalgia in the Post-Apartheid State.” Anthropology Southern Africa 39 (2): 97–109.
———. 2017. “Make Democracy Great Again?” Anthropology News (blog). January 17. www.anthropology-news.org/index.php/2017/01/17/make
-democracy-great-again/.
Reed, Amber R., and Amy Hill. 2010. “ ‘Don’t Keep It to Yourself !’: Digi- tal Storytelling with South African Youth.” Seminar.net 9 (1). https:// journals.hioa.no/index.php/seminar/article/view/2447.
Rice, Kathleen. 2017. “Rights and Responsibilities in Rural South Africa: Im- plications for Gender, Generation, and Personhood.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 23 (1): 28–41.
Robins, Steven L. 2005. Limits to Liberation after Apartheid: Citizenship, Gov- ernance and Culture. Oxford, Athens, and Cape Town: James Currey, Ohio University Press, and David Philip Publishers.
———. 2008. From Revolution to Rights in South Africa: Social Movements, NGOs and Popular Politics after Apartheid. Scottsville: University of Kwazulu-Natal Press.
Robins, Steven, and Bettina von Lieres. 2004. “Remaking Citizenship, Unmak- ing Marginalization: The Treatment Action Campaign in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 38 (3): 575–86.
Roitman, Janet L. 2005. Fiscal Disobedience: An Anthropology of Economic Regu- lation in Central Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rosaldo, Renato. 1989. Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis. Bos- ton: Beacon Press.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques [1762] 1973. The Social Contract and Discourses. Trans- lated by G. D. H. Cole. New York: Dutton.
Said, Edward W. 1978. Orientalism. 1st ed. New York: Pantheon Books.
Sambumbu, Sipokazi. 2010. “Social History, Public History and the Politics of Memory in Re-Making Ndabeni’s Pasts.” Master’s thesis, University of the Western Cape.
Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1995. “The Primacy of the Ethical: Propositions for a Militant Anthropology.” Current Anthropology 36 (3): 409–40.
Seekings, Jeremy. 2008. “The Continuing Salience of Race: Discrimination and Diversity in South Africa.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 26 (1): 1–25.
Seiler, Gale. 2018. “New Norms and Forms of Participation in Rural South African Science Classrooms.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 49 (3): 262–78.
Se-Puma, Peter, Raymond Sargent, and Bobby Heany. 1996. “Suburban Bliss.” South African Broadcasting Corporation.
Skoggard, Ian, and Alisse Waterston. 2015. “Introduction: Toward an Anthro- pology of Affect and Evocative Ethnography.” Anthropology of Conscious- ness 26 (2): 109–20.
Soga, John Henderson. 1930. The South-Eastern Bantu (Abe-Naguni, Aba-Mbo, Ama-Lala). Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
———. 1931. The Ama-Xosa: Life and Customs. Lovedale: Lovedale Press.
Sonke Gender Justice Network. 2009. “Engaging Men to Reduce Violence against Women and Children, Prevent the Spread of HIV/AIDS and Pro- mote Health, Care and Support to Orphans and Vulnerable Children in Nkandla, KwaZulu-Natal and Mhlontlo, Eastern Cape: Phase II.” https:// genderjustice.org.za/publication/engaging-men-reduce-violence-women
-children-prevent-spread-hivaids-promote-health-care-support-orphans
-vulnerable-children-nkandla-kwazulu-natal-mhlontl/.
———. 2011.“Sonke Welcomes Malema’s Apology but . . .”July 5. https://gender justice.org.za/article/sonke-welcomes-julius-malemas-apology-but/.
South Africa Department of Basic Education. 2011a. “Curriculum and Assess- ment Policy Statement, Grades 10–12, Life Orientation.” www.education
.gov.za/Curriculum/CurriculumAssessmentPolicyStatements(CAPS)
/CAPSIntermediate.aspx.
———. 2011b. “National Curriculum Statement.” www.education.gov.za
/Curriculum/NationalCurriculumStatementsGradesR-12.aspx.
———. 2015. “Education Statistics in South Africa.” March. www.education
.gov.za.
———. 2017. “Senior Certificate Examinations: History P1 2017 Memoran- dum.” www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/CD/Computer/2017%20May
-June%20past%20exam%20papers/Non-Languages%20May-June
%202017/History%20P1%20May-June%202017%20Eng.pdf ?ver=2017
-07-07-142728-000.
South African Broadcasting Corporation. 2014. “South Africa: ‘Protest Capi- tal of the World.’” January 27. www.sabc.co.za/news.
Southall, Roger, ed. 2001. Opposition and Democracy in South Africa. London: Frank Cass.
Statistics South Africa. 2016a. “Community Survey.” www.statssa.gov.za
/?page_id=1854&PPN=Report%2003-01-08&SCH=7350.
———. 2016b. “Quarterly Labour Force Survey.” July 28. www.statssa.gov.za
/publications/P02111stQuarter2016.pdf.
Stewart, Kathleen. 1988. “Nostalgia: A Polemic.” Cultural Anthropology: Journal of the Society for Cultural Anthropology 3: 227–41.
Strickland, Ronald. 2002. Growing up Postmodern: Neoliberalism and the War on the Young. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Stromberg, Peter G. 1990. “Ideological Language in the Transformation of Identity.” American Anthropologist 92 (1): 42–56.
Szeftel, Morris. 2004. “Two Cheers? South African Democracy’s First De- cade.” Review of African Political Economy, 31 (100): 193–202.
Taussig, Michael T. 1980. The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Thompson, Leonard Monteath. 1990. A History of South Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Timmer, Andria D. 2010. “Constructing the ‘Needy Subject’: NGO Dis- courses of Roma Need.” PoLAR: Political & Legal Anthropology Review 33 (2): 261–81.
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. 2005. Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Turner, Terence. 1992. “Defiant Images: The Kayapo Appropriation of Video.”
Anthropology Today 8 (6): 5.
Turner, Victor W. 1967. The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
UNAIDS. “South Africa.” 2019. www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries
/southafrica.
van Allen, Judith. 1972. “‘Sitting on a Man’: Colonialism and the Lost Po- litical Institutions of Igbo Women.” Canadian Journal of African Studies /
Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 6 (2): 165. https://doi.org/10
.2307/484197.
Van Driel, Francien, and Jacqueline Van Haren. 2003. “Whose Interests Are at Stake? Civil Society and NGOs in South Africa.” Development South- ern Africa 20 (4): 529–43.
Venter, Rienie. 2011. “Xhosa Male Initiation: An Evaluation of Children’s Human Rights.” Child Abuse Research in South Africa 12 (2): 87–97.
Vincent, Louise. 2008. “‘Boys Will Be Boys’: Traditional Xhosa Male Circum- cision, HIV and Sexual Socialisation in Contemporary South Africa.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 10 (5): 431–46.
Von Schnitzler, Antina. 2016. Democracy’s Infrastructure: Techno-Politics and Citizenship after Apartheid. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Weiss, Brad, ed. 2004. Producing African Futures: Ritual and Reproduction in a Neoliberal Age. Leiden: Brill.
West, Harry G. 2005. Kupilikula: Governance and the Invisible Realm in Mozam- bique. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
White, Hylton. 2004. “Ritual Haunts: The Timing of Estrangement in a Post- Apartheid Countryside.” In Producing African Futures: Ritual and Repro- duction in a Neoliberal Age, edited by Brad Weiss, 141–66. Leiden: Brill.
Wilson, Monica. 1982. “Monica and Godfrey Wilson Papers, 1881–1982.” University of Cape Town Libraries.
Wolf, Eric R. 1982. Europe and the People without History. Berkeley: University of California Press.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
